Inexaminingthoseingredients，whicharecapableofunitingwithloveandhatred，Ibegintobesensible，insomemeasure，ofamisfortune，thathasattendedeverysystemofphilosophy，withwhichtheworldhasbeenyetacquainted。`Tiscommonlyfound，thatinaccountingfortheoperationsofnaturebyanyparticularhypothesis；amonganumberofexperiments，thatquadrateexactlywiththeprincipleswewou’dendeavourtoestablish；thereisalwayssomephaenomenon，whichismorestubborn，andwillnotsoeasilybendtoourpurpose。Weneednotbesurpriz’d，thatthisshou’dhappeninnaturalphilosophy。Theessenceandcompositionofexternalbodiesaresoobscure，thatwemustnecessarily，inourreasonings，orratherconjecturesconcerningthem，involveourselvesincontradictionsandabsurdities。Butastheperceptionsofthemindareperfectlyknown，andIhaveus’dallimaginablecautioninformingconclusionsconcerningthem，Ihavealwayshop’dtokeepclearofthosecontradictions，whichhaveattendedeveryothersystem。Accordinglythedifficulty，whichIhaveatpresentinmyeye，isnowisecontrarytomysystem；butonlydepartsalittlefromthatsimplicity，whichhasbeenhithertoitsprincipalforceandbeauty。
Thepassionsofloveandhatredarealwaysfollow’dby，orratherconjoin’dwithbenevolenceandanger。`Tisthisconjunction，whichchieflydistinguishestheseaffectionsfromprideandhumility。Forprideandhumilityarepureemotionsinthesoul，unattendedwithanydesire，andnotimmediatelyexcitingustoaction。Butloveandhatredarenotcompleatedwithinthemselves，norrestinthatemotion，whichtheyproduce，butcarrythemindtosomethingfarther。Loveisalwaysfollow’dbyadesireofthehappinessofthepersonbelov’d，andanaversiontohismisery:Ashatredproducesadesireofthemiseryandanaversiontothehappinessofthepersonhated。Soremarkableadifferencebetwixtthesetwosetsofpassionsofprideandhumility，loveandhatred，whichinsomanyotherparticularscorrespondtoeachother，meritsourattention。
Theconjunctionofthisdesireandaversionwithloveandhatredmaybeaccountedforbytwodifferenthypotheses。Thefirstis，thatloveandhatredhavenotonlyacause，whichexcitesthem，viz，pleasureandpain；andanobject，towhichtheyaredirected，viz，apersonorthinkingbeing；butlikewiseanend，whichtheyendeavourtoattain，viz，thehappinessormiseryofthepersonbelov’dorhated；allwhichviews，mixingtogether，makeonlyonepassion。Accordingtothissystem，loveisnothingbutthedesireofhappinesstoanotherperson，andhatredthatofmisery。Thedesireandaversionconstitutetheverynatureofloveandhatred。Theyarenotonlyinseparablebutthesame。
Butthisisevidentlycontrarytoexperience。Fortho’`tiscertainweneverloveanypersonwithoutdesiringhishappiness，norhateanywithoutwishinghismisery，yetthesedesiresariseonlyupontheideasofthehappinessormiseryofourfriendorenemybeingpresentedbytheimagination，andarenotabsolutelyessentialtoloveandhatred。Theyarethemostobviousandnaturalsentimentsoftheseaffections，butnottheonlyones。Thepassionsmayexpressthemselvesinahundredways，andmaysubsistaconsiderabletime，withoutourreflectingonthehappinessormiseryoftheirobjects；whichclearlyproves，thatthesedesiresarenotthesamewithloveandhatred，normakeanyessentialpartofthem。
Wemay，therefore，infer，thatbenevolenceandangerarepassionsdifferentfromloveandhatred，andonlyconjoin’dwiththem，bytheoriginalconstitutionofthemind。Asnaturehasgiventothebodycertainappetitesandinclinations，whichsheencreases，diminishes，orchangesaccordingtothesituationofthefluidsorsolids；shehasproceededinthesamemannerwiththemind。Accordingaswearepossess’dwithloveorhatred，thecorrespondentdesireofthehappinessormiseryoftheperson，whoistheobjectofthesepassions，arisesinthemind，andvarieswitheachvariationoftheseoppositepassions。Thisorderofthings，abstractedlyconsider’d，isnotnecessary。Loveandhatredmighthavebeenunattendedwithanysuchdesires，ortheirparticularconnexionmighthavebeenentirelyrevers’d。Ifnaturehadsopleas’d，lovemighthavehadthesameeffectashatred，andhatredaslove。Iseenocontradictioninsupposingadesireofproducingmiseryannex’dtolove，andofhappinesstohatred。Ifthesensationofthepassionanddesirebeopposite，naturecou’dhavealter’dthesensationwithoutalteringthetendencyofthedesire，andbythatmeansmadethemcompatiblewitheachother。
OfcompassionButtho’thedesireofthehappinessormiseryofothers，accordingtotheloveorhatredwebearthem，beanarbitraryandoriginalinstinctimplantedinournature，wefinditmaybecounterfeitedonmanyoccasions，andmayarisefromsecondaryprinciples。Pityisaconcernfor，andmaliceajoyinthemiseryofothers，withoutanyfriendshiporenmitytooccasionthisconcernorjoy。Wepityevenstrangers，andsuchasareperfectlyindifferenttous:Andifourill-willtoanotherproceedfromanyharmorinjury，itisnot，properlyspeaking，malice，butrevenge。Butifweexaminetheseaffectionsofpityandmaliceweshallfindthemtobesecondaryones，arisingfromoriginalaffections，whicharevariedbysomeparticularturnofthoughtandimagination。
’Twillbeeasytoexplainthepassionofpity，fromtheprecedentreasoningconcerningsympathy。Wehavealivelyideaofeverythingrelatedtous。Allhumancreaturesarerelatedtousbyresemblance。Theirpersons，therefore，theirinterests，theirpassions，theirpainsandpleasuresmuststrikeuponusinalivelymanner，andproduceanemotionsimilartotheoriginalone；sincealivelyideaiseasilyconvertedintoanimpression。Ifthisbetrueingeneral，itmustbemoresoofafflictionandsorrow。Thesehavealwaysastrongerandmorelastinginfluencethananypleasureorenjoyment。
Aspectatorofatragedypassesthro’alongtrainofgrief，terror，indignation，andotheraffections，whichthepoetrepresentsinthepersonsheintroduces。Asmanytragediesendhappily，andnoexcellentonecanbecompos’dwithoutsomereversesoffortune，thespectatormustsympathizewithallthesechanges，andreceivethefictitiousjoyaswellaseveryotherpassion。Unless，therefore，itbeasserted，thateverydistinctpassioniscommunicatedbyadistinctoriginalquality，andisnotderiv’dfromthegeneralprincipleofsympathyabove-explain’d，itmustbeallow’d，thatallofthemarisefromthatprinciple。Toexceptanyoneinparticularmustappearhighlyunreasonable。Astheyareallfirstpresentinthemindofoneperson，andafterwardsappearinthemindofanother；andasthemanneroftheirappearance，firstasanidea，thenasanimpression，isineverycasethesame，thetransitionmustarisefromthesameprinciple。Iamatleastsure，thatthismethodofreasoningwou’dbeconsider’dascertain，eitherinnaturalphilosophyorcommonlife。
Addtothis，thatpitydepends，inagreatmeasure，onthecontiguity，andevensightoftheobject；whichisaproof，that`tisderiv’dfromtheimagination。Nottomentionthatwomenandchildrenaremostsubjecttopity，asbeingmostguidedbythatfaculty。Thesameinfirmity，whichmakesthemfaintatthesightofanakedsword，tho’inthehandsoftheirbestfriend，makesthempityextremelythose，whomtheyfindinanygrieforaffliction。Thosephilosophers，whoderivethispassionfromIknownotwhatsubtilereflectionsontheinstabilityoffortune，andourbeingliabletothesamemiserieswebehold，willfindthisobservationcontrarytothemamongagreatmanyothers，whichitwereeasytoproduce。
Thereremainsonlytotakenoticeofaprettyremarkablephaenomenonofthispassion；whichis，thatthecommunicatedpassionofsympathysometimesacquiresstrengthfromtheweaknessofitsoriginal，andevenarisesbyatransitionfromaffections，whichhavenoexistence。Thuswhenapersonobtainsanyhonourableoffice，orinheritsagreatfortune，wearealwaysthemorerejoic’dforhisprosperity，thelesssenseheseemstohaveofit，andthegreaterequanimityandindifferenceheshewsinitsenjoyment。Inlikemanneraman，whoisnotdejectedbymisfortunes，isthemorelamentedonaccountofhispatience；andifthatvirtueextendssofarasutterlytoremoveallsenseofuneasiness，itstillfartherencreasesourcompassion。Whenapersonofmeritfallsintowhatisvulgarlyesteem’dagreatmisfortune，weformanotionofhiscondition；andcarryingourfancyfromthecausetotheusualeffect，firstconceivealivelyideaofhissorrow，andthenfeelanimpressionofit，entirelyover-lookingthatgreatnessofmind，whichelevateshimabovesuchemotions，oronlyconsideringitsofarastoencreaseouradmiration，loveandtendernessforhim。Wefindfromexperience，thatsuchadegreeofpassionisusuallyconnectedwithsuchamisfortune；andtho’therebeanexceptioninthepresentcase，yettheimaginationisaffectedbythegeneralrule，andmakesusconceivealivelyideaofthepassion，orratherfeelthepassionitself，inthesamemanner，asifthepersonwerereallyactuatedbyit。Fromthesameprinciplesweblushfortheconductofthose，whobehavethemselvesfoolishlybeforeus；andthattho’theyshewnosenseofshame，norseemintheleastconsciousoftheirfolly。Allthisproceedsfromsympathy；but`tisofapartialkind，andviewsitsobjectsonlyononeside，withoutconsideringtheother，whichhasacontraryeffect，andwou’dentirelydestroythatemotion，whicharisesfromthefirstappearance。
Wehavealsoinstances，whereinanindifferenceandinsensibilityundermisfortuneencreasesourconcernforthemisfortunate，eventho’theindifferenceproceednotfromanyvirtueandmagnanimity。Tisanaggravationofamurder，thatitwascommitteduponpersonsasleepandinperfectsecurity；ashistoriansreadilyobserveofanyinfantprince，whoiscaptiveinthehandsofhisenemies，thatheisthemoreworthyofcompassionthelesssensibleheisofhismiserablecondition。Asweourselvesarehereacquaintedwiththewretchedsituationoftheperson，itgivesusalivelyideaandsensationofsorrow，whichisthepassionthatgenerallyattendsit；andthisideabecomesstillmorelively，andthesensationmoreviolentbyacontrastwiththatsecurityandindifference，whichweobserveinthepersonhimself。Acontrastofanykindneverfailstoaffecttheimagination，especiallywhenpresentedbythesubject；and`tisontheimaginationthatpityentirelydepends。(12)
SECT。VIIIOfmaliceandenvyWemustnowproceedtoaccountforthepassionofmalice，whichimitatestheeffectsofhatred，aspitydoesthoseoflove；andgivesusajoyinthesufferingsandmiseriesofothers，withoutanyoffenceorinjuryontheirpart。
Solittlearemengovern’dbyreasonintheirsentimentsandopinions，thattheyalwaysjudgemoreofobjectsbycomparisonthanfromtheirintrinsicworthandvalue。Whenthemindconsiders，orisaccustom’dto，anydegreeof。perfection，whateverfallsshortofit，tho’reallyesteemable，hasnotwithstandingthesameeffectuponthepassions；aswhatisdefectiveandill。Thisisanoriginalqualityofthesoul，andsimilartowhatwehaveeverydayexperienceofinourbodies。Letamanheatonebandandcooltheother；thesamewaterwill，atthesametime，seembothhotandcold，accordingtothedispositionofthedifferentorgans。Asmalldegreeofanyquality，succeedingagreater，producesthesamesensation，asiflessthanitreallyis，andevensometimesastheoppositequality。Anygentlepain，thatfollowsaviolentone，seemsasnothing，orratherbecomesapleasure；asontheotherhandaviolentpain，succeedingagentleone，isdoublygrievousanduneasy。
Thisnoonecandoubtofwithregardtoourpassionsandsensations。Buttheremayarisesomedifficultywithregardtoourideasandobjects。Whenanobjectaugmentsordiminishestotheeyeorimaginationfromacomparisonwithothers，theimageandideaoftheobjectarestillthesame，andareequallyextendedintheretina，andinthebrainororganofperception。Theeyesrefracttheraysoflight，andtheopticnervesconveytheimagestothebrainintheverysamemanner，whetheragreatorsmallobjecthaspreceded；nordoeseventheimaginationalterthedimensionsofitsobjectonaccountofacomparisonwithothers。Thequestionthenis，howfromthesameimpressionandthesameideawecanformsuchdifferentjudgmentsconcerningthesameobject，andatonetimeadmireitsbulk，andatanotherdespiseitslittleness。Thisvariationinourjudgmentsmustcertainlyproceedfromavariationinsomeperception；butasthevariationliesnotintheimmediateimpressionorideaoftheobject，itmustlieinsomeotherimpression，`thataccompaniesit。
Inordertoexplainthismatter，Ishalljusttouchupontwoprinciples，oneofwhichshallbemorefullyexplain’dintheprogressofthistreatise；theotherhasbeenalreadyaccountedfor。Ibelieveitmaysafelybeestablish’dforageneralmaxim，thatnoobjectispresentedtothesenses，norimageform’dinthefancy，butwhatisaccompany’dwithsomeemotionormovementofspiritsproportion’dtoit；andhowevercustommaymakeusinsensibleofthissensationandcauseustoconfounditwiththeobjectoridea，`twillbeeasy，bycarefulandexactexperiments，toseparateanddistinguishthem。Fortoinstanceonlyinthecasesofextensionandnumber；`tisevident，thatanyverybulkyobject，suchastheocean，anextendedplain，avastchainofmountains，awideforest:oranyverynumerouscollectionofobjects，suchasanarmy，afleet，acrowd，exciteinthemindasensibleemotion；andthattheadmiration，whicharisesontheappearanceofsuchobjects，isoneofthemostlivelypleasures，whichhumannatureiscapableofenjoying。Nowasthisadmirationencreasesordiminishesbytheencreaseordiminutionoftheobjects，wemayconclude，accordingtoourforegoing(13)principles，that`tisacompoundeffect，proceedingfromtheconjunctionoftheseveraleffects，whicharisefromeachpartofthecause。Everypart，then，ofextension，andeveryuniteofnumberhasaseparateemotionattendingit；andtho’thatemotionbenotalwaysagreeable，yetbyitsconjunctionwithothers，andbyitsagitatingthespiritstoajustpitch，itcontributestotheproductionofadmiration，whichisalwaysagreeable。Ifthisbeallow’dwithrespecttoextensionandnumber，wecanmakenodifficultywithrespecttovirtueandvice，witandfolly，richesandpoverty，happinessandmisery，andotherobjectsofthatkind，whicharealwaysattendedwithanevidentemotion。
ThesecondprincipleIshalltakenoticeofisthatofouradherencetogeneralrules；whichhassuchamightyinfluenceontheactionsandunderstanding，andisabletoimposeontheverysenses。Whenanobjectisfoundby-experiencetobealwaysaccompany’dwithanother；wheneverthefirstobjectappears，tho’chang’dinverymaterialcircumstances；wenaturallyflytotheconceptionofthesecond，andformanideaofitinaslivelyandstrongamanner，asifwehadinfer’ditsexistencebythejustestandmostauthenticconclusionofourunderstanding。Nothingcanundeceiveus，notevenoursenses，which，insteadofcorrectingthisfalsejudgment，areoftenpervertedbyit，andseemtoauthorizeitserrors。
TheconclusionIdrawfromthesetwoprinciples，join’dtotheinfluenceofcomparisonabove-mention’d，isveryshortanddecisive。Everyobjectisattendedwithsomeemotionproportion’dtoit；agreatobjectwithagreatemotion，asmallobjectwithasmallemotion。Agreatobject，therefore，succeedingasmallonemakesagreatemotionsucceedasmallone。Nowagreatemotionsucceedingasmallonebecomesstillgreater，andrisesbeyonditsordinaryproportion。Butasthereisacertaindegreeofanemotion，whichcommonlyattendseverymagnitudeofa-nobject；whentheemotionencreases，wenaturallyimaginethattheobjecthaslikewiseencreas’d。Theeffectconveysourviewtoitsusualcause，acertaindegreeofemotiontoacertainmagnitudeoftheobject；nordoweconsider，thatcomparisonmaychangetheemotionwithoutchanginganythingintheobject。Thosewhoareacquaintedwiththemetaphysicalpartofopticsandknowhowwetransferthejudgmentsandconclusionsoftheunderstandingtothesenses，willeasilyconceivethiswholeoperation。
Butleavingthisnewdiscoveryofanimpression，thatsecretlyattendseveryidea；wemustatleastallowofthatprinciple，fromwhencethediscoveryarose，thatobjectsappeargreaterorlessbyacomparisonwithothers。Wehavesomanyinstancesofthis，thatitisimpossiblewecandisputeitsveracity；and`tisfromthisprincipleIderivethepassionsofmaliceandenvy。
`Tisevidentwemustreceiveagreaterorlesssatisfactionoruneasinessfromreflectingonourownconditionandcircumstances，inproportionastheyappearmoreorlessfortunateorunhappy，inproportiontothedegreesofriches，andpower，andmerit，andreputation，whichwethinkourselvespossestof。Nowasweseldomjudgeofobjectsfromtheirintrinsicvalue，butformournotionsofthemfromacomparisonwithotherobjects；itfollows，thataccordingasweobserveagreaterorlessshareofhappinessormiseryinothers，wemustmakeanestimateofourown，andfeelaconsequentpainorpleasure。Themiseryofanothergivesusamorelivelyideaofourhappiness，andhishappinessofourmisery。Theformer，therefore，producesdelight；andthelatteruneasiness。
Herethenisakindofpityreverst，orcontrarysensationsarisinginthebeholder，fromthosewhicharefeltbytheperson，whomheconsiders。Ingeneralwemayobserve，thatinallkindsofcomparisonanobjectmakesusalwaysreceivefromanother，towhichitiscompar’d，asensationcontrarytowhatarisesfromitselfinitsdirectandimmediatesurvey。Asmallobjectmakesagreatoneappearstillgreater。Agreatobjectmakesalittleoneappearless。Deformityofitselfproducesuneasiness；butmakesusreceivenewpleasurebyitscontrastwithabeautifulobject，whosebeautyisaugmentedbyit；asontheotherhand，beauty，whichofitselfproducespleasure，makesusreceiveanewpainbythecontrastwithanythingugiy，whosedeformityitaugments。Thecase，therefore，mustbethesamewithhappinessandmisery。Thedirectsurveyofanother’spleasurenaturallygivesusplcasure，andthereforeproducespainwhencornpar’dwithourown。Hispain，consider’dinitself，ispainfultous，butaugmentstheideaofourownhappiness，andgivesuspleasure。
Norwillitappearstrange，thatwemayfeelareverstsensationfromthehappinessandmiseryofothers；sincewefindthesamecomparisonmaygiveusakindofmaliceagainstourselves，andmakeusrejoiceforourpains，andgrieveforourpleasures。Thustheprospectofpastpainisagreeable，whenwearesatisfy’dwithourpresentcondition；asontheotherhandourpastpleasuresgiveusuneasiness，whenweenjoynothingatpresentequaltothem。Thecomparisonbeingthesame，aswhenwereflectonthesentimentsofothers，mustbeattendedwiththesameeffects。
Nayapersonmayextendthismaliceagainsthimself，eventohispresentfortune，andcarryitsofarasdesignedlytoseekaffliction，andencreasehispainsandsorrows。Thismayhappenupontwooccasions。First，Uponthedistressandmisfortuneofafriend，orpersondeartohim。Secondly，Uponthefeelinganyremorsesforacrime，ofwhichhehasbeenguilty。`Tisfromtheprincipleofcomparisonthatboththeseirregularappetitesforevilarise。Aperson，whoindulgeshimselfinanypleasure，whilehisfriendliesunderaffliction，feelsthereflecteduneasinessfromhisfriendmoresensiblybyacomparisonwiththeoriginalpleasure，whichhehimselfenjoys。Thiscontrast，indeed，oughtalsotoinliventhepresentpleasure。Butasgriefisheresuppos’dtobethepredominantpassion，everyadditionfallstothatside，andisswallow’dupinit，withoutoperatingintheleastuponthecontraryaffection。Tisthesamecasewiththosepenances，whichmeninflictonthemselvesfortheirpastsinsandfailings。Whena。criminalreflectsonthepunishmenthedeserves，theideaofitismagnify’dbyacomparisonwithhispresenteaseandsatisfaction；whichforceshim，inamanner，toseekuneasiness，inordertoavoidsodisagreeableacontrast。
Thisreasoningwillaccountfortheoriginofenvyaswellasofmalice。Theonlydifferencebetwixtthesepassionsliesinthis，thatenvyisexcitedbysomepresentenjoymentofanother，whichbycomparisondiminishesourideaofourown:Whereasmaliceistheunprovok’ddesireofproducingeviltoanother，inordertoreapapleasurefromthecomparison。Theenjoyment，whichistheobjectofenvy，iscommonlysuperiortoourown。Asuperioritynaturallyseemstoovershadeus，andpresentsadisagreeablecomparison。Buteveninthecaseofaninferiority，westilldesireagreaterdistance，inordertoaugment，stillmoretheideaofourself。Whenthisdistancediminishes，thecomparisonislesstoouradvantage；andconsequentlygivesuslesspleasure，andisevendisagreeable。Hencearisesthatspeciesofenvy，whichmenfeel，whentheyperceivetheirinferiorsapproachingorovertakingtheminthepursuitsofgloryorhappiness。Inthisenvywemayseetheeffectsofcomparisontwicerepeated。Aman，whocompareshimselftohisinferior，receivesapleasurefromthecomparison:Andwhentheinferioritydecreasesbytheelevationoftheinferior，whatshou’donlyhavebeenadecreaseofpleasure，becomesarealpain，byanewcomparisonwithitsprecedingcondition。
`Tisworthyofobservationconcerningthatenvy，whicharisesfromasuperiorityinothers，that`tisnotthegreatdisproportionbetwixtourselfandanother，whichproducesit；butonthecontrary，ourproximity。Acommonsoldierbearsnosuchenvytohisgeneralastohissergeantorcorporal；nordoesaneminentwritermeetwithsogreatjealousyincommonhackneyscriblers，asinauthors，thatmorenearlyapproachhim。Itmay，indeed，bethought，thatthegreaterthedisproportionis，thegreatermustbetheuneasinessfromthecomparison。Butwemayconsiderontheotherhand，thatthegreatdisproportioncutsofftherelation，andeitherkeepsusfromcomparingourselveswithwhatisremotefromus，ordiminishestheeffectsofthecomparison。Resemblanceandproximityalwaysproducearelationofideas；andwhereyoudestroytheseties，howeverotheraccidentsmaybringtwoideastogether；astheyhavenobondorconnectingqualitytojointhemintheimagination；`tisimpossibletheycanremainlongunited，orhaveanyconsiderableinfluenceoneachother。
Ihaveobserv’dinconsideringthenatureofambition，thatthegreatfeeladoublepleasureinauthorityfromthecomparisonoftheirownconditionwiththatoftheirslaves；andthatthiscomparisonhasadoubleinfluence，because`tisnatural，andpresentedbythesubject。Whenthefancy，inthecomparisonofobjects，passesnoteasilyfromtheoneobjecttotheother，theactionofthemindis，inagreatmeasure，broke，andthefancy，inconsideringthesecondobject，begins，asitwere，uponanewfooting。Theimpression，whichattendseveryobject，seemsnotgreaterinthatcasebysucceedingalessofthesamekind；butthesetwoimpressionsaredistinct，andproducetheirdistincteffects，withoutanycommunicationtogether。Thewantofrelationintheideasbreakstherelationoftheimpressions，andbysuchaseparationpreventstheirmutualoperationandinfluence。
Toconfirmthiswemayobserve，thattheproximityinthedegreeofmeritisnotalonesufficienttogiverisetoenvy，butmustbeassistedbyotherrelations。Apoetisnotapttoenvyaphilosopher，orapoetofadifferentkind，ofadifferentnation，orofadifferentage。Allthesedifferencespreventorweakenthecomparison，andconsequentlythepassion。
Thistooisthereason，whyallobjectsappeargreatorlittle，merelybyacomparisonwiththoseofthesamespecies。Amountainneithermagnifiesnordiminishesahorseinoureyes；butwhenaFlemishandaWelshhorseareseentogether，theoneappearsgreaterandtheotherless，thanwhenview’dapart。
Fromthesameprinciplewemayaccountforthatremarkofhistorians，thatanypartyinacivilwaralwayschoosetocallinaforeignenemyatanyhazardratherthansubmittotheirfellow-citizens。GuicciardinappliesthisremarktothewarsinItaly，wheretherelationsbetwixtthedifferentstatesare，properlyspeaking，nothingbutofname，language，andcontiguity。Yeteventheserelations，whenjoin’dwithsuperiority，bymakingthecomparisonmorenatural，makeitlikewisemoregrievous，andcausementosearchforsomeothersuperiority，whichmaybeattendedwithnorelation，andbythatmeansmayhavealesssensibleinfluenceontheimagination。Themindquicklyperceivesitsseveraladvantagesanddisadvantages；andfindingitssituationtobemostuneasy，wheresuperiorityisconjoin’dwithotherrelations，seeksitsreposeasmuchaspossible，bytheirseparation，andbybreakingthatassociationofideas，whichrendersthecomparisonsomuchmorenaturalandefficacious。Whenitcannotbreaktheassociation，itfeelsastrongerdesiretoremovethesuperiority；andthisisthereasonwhytravellersarecommonlysolavishoftheirpraisestotheChineseandPersians，atthesametime，thattheydepreciatethoseneighbouringnations，whichmaystanduponafootofrivalshipwiththeirnativecountry。
Theseexamplesfromhistoryandcommonexperiencearerichandcurious；butwemayfindparallelonesinthearts，whicharenolessremarkable。Shou’danauthorcomposeatreatise，ofwhichonepartwasseriousandprofound，anotherlightandhumorous，everyonewou’dcondemnsostrangeamixture，andwou’daccusehimoftheneglectofallrulesofartandcriticism。Theserulesofartarefoundedonthequalitiesofhumannature；andthequalityofhumannature，whichrequiresaconsistencyineveryperformance。isthatwhichrendersthemindincapableofpassinginamomentfromonepassionanddispositiontoaquitedifferentone。YetthismakesusnotblameMrPriorforjoininghisAlmaandhisSolomoninthesamevolume；tho’thatadmirablepoethassucceededperfectlywellinthegaietyoftheone，aswellasinthemelancholyoftheother。Evensupposingthereadershou’dperusethesetwocompositionswithoutanyinterval，hewou’dfeellittleornodifficultyinthechangeofpassions:Why，butbecauseheconsiderstheseperformancesasentirelydifferent，andbythisbreakintheideas，breakstheprogressoftheaffections，andhinderstheonefrominfluencingorcontradictingtheother？
Anheroicandburlesquedesign，unitedinonepicture，wou’dbemonstrous；tho’weplacetwopicturesofsooppositeacharacterinthesamechamber，andevenclosebyeachother，withoutanyscrupleordifficulty。
Inaword，noideascanaffecteachother，eitherbycomparison，orbythepassionstheyseparatelyproduce，unlesstheybeunitedtogetherbysomerelation，whichmaycauseaneasytransitionoftheideas，andconsequentlyoftheemotionsorimpressions，attendingtheideas；andmaypreservetheoneimpressioninthepassageoftheimaginationtotheobjectoftheother。Thisprincipleisveryremarkable，becauseitisanalogoustowhatwehaveobserv’dbothconcerningtheunderstandingandthepassions。Supposetwoobjectstobepresentedtome，whicharenotconnectedbyanykindofrelation。Supposethateachoftheseobjectsseparatelyproducesapassion；andthatthesetwopassionsareinthemselvescontrary:Wefindfromexperience，thatthewantofrelationintheobjectsorideashindersthenaturalcontrarietyofthepassions，andthatthebreakinthetransitionofthethoughtremovestheaffectionsfromeachother，andpreventstheiropposition。Tisthesamecasewithcomparison；andfromboththesephaenomenawemaysafelyconclude，thattherelationofideasmustforwardthetransitionofimpressions；sinceitsabsencealoneisabletopreventit，andtoseparatewhatnaturallyshou’dhaveoperateduponeachother。Whentheabsenceofanobjectorqualityremovesanyusualornaturaleffect，wemaycertalnlyconcludethatitspresencecontributestotheproductionoftheeffect。
OfthemixtureofbenevolenceandangerwithcompassionandmaliceThuswehaveendeavour’dtoaccountforpityandmalice。Boththeseaffectionsarisefromtheimagination，accordingtothelight，inwhichitplacesitsobject。Whenourfancyconsidersdirectlythesentimentsofothers，andentersdeepintothem，itmakesussensibleofallthepassionsitsurveys，butinaparticularmannerofgrieforsorrow。Onthecontrary，whenwecomparethesentimentsofotherstoourown，wefeelasensationdirectlyoppositetotheoriginalone，viz。ajoyfromthegriefofothers，andagrieffromtheirjoy。Buttheseareonlythefirstfoundationsoftheaffectionsofpityandmalice。Otherpassionsareafterwardsconfoundedwiththem。Thereisalwaysamixtureofloveortendernesswithpity，andofhatredorangerwithmalice。Butitmustbeconfess’d，thatthismixtureseemsatfirstsighttobecontradictorytomysystem。Foraspityisanuneasiness，andmaliceajoy，arisingfromthemiseryofothers，pityshou’dnaturally，asinallothercases，producehatred；andmalice，love。ThiscontradictionIendeavourtoreconcile，afterthefollowingmanner。
Inordertocauseatransitionofpassions，thereisrequir’dadoublerelationofimpressionsandideas，norisonerelationsufficienttoproducethiseffect。Butthatwemayunderstandthefullforceofthisdoublerelation，wemustconsider，that`tisnotthepresentsensationaloneormomentarypainorpleasure，whichdeterminesthecharacterofanypassion，butthewholebentortendencyofitfromthebeginningtotheend。Oneimpressionmayberelatedtoanother，notonlywhentheirsensationsareresembling，aswehaveallalongsuppos’dintheprecedingcases；butalsowhentheirimpulsesordirectionsaresimilarandcorrespondent。Thiscannottakeplacewithregardtoprideandhumility；becausetheseareonlypuresensations，withoutanydirectionortendencytoaction。Weare，therefore，tolookforinstancesofthispeculiarrelationofimpressionsonlyinsuchaffections，asareattendedwithacertainappetiteordesire；suchasthoseofloveandhatred，Benevolenceortheappetite，whichattendslove，isadesireofthehappinessofthepersonbelov’d，andanaversiontohismisery；asangerortheappetite，whichattendshatred，isadesireofthemiseryofthepersonhated，andanaversiontohishappiness。Adesire，therefore，ofthehappinessofanother，andaversiontohismisery，aresimilartobenevolence；andadesireofhismiseryandaversiontohishappinessarecorrespondenttoanger。Nowpityisadesireofhappinesstoanother，andaversiontohismisery；asmaliceisthecontraryappetite。Pity，then，isrelatedtobenevolence；andmalicetoanger:Andasbenevolencehasbeenalreadyfoundtobeconnectedwithlove，byanaturalandoriginalquality，andangerwithhatred；`tisbythischainthepassionsofpityandmaliceareconnectedwithloveandhatred。
Thishypothesisisfoundedonsufficientexperience。Aman，whofromanymotiveshasentertain’daresolutionofperforminganaction，naturallyrunsintoeveryotherviewormotive，whichmayfortifythatresolution，andgiveitauthorityandinfluenceonthemind。Toconfirmusinanydesign，wesearchformotivesdrawnfrominterest，fromhonour，fromduty。Whatwonder，then，thatpityandbenevolence，malice，andanger，beingthesamedesiresarisingfromdifferentprinciples，shou’dsototallymixtogetherastobeundistinguishable？Astotheconnexionbetwixtbenevolenceandlove，angerandhatred，beingoriginalandprimary，itadmitsofnodifficulty。
Wemayaddtothisanotherexperiment，viz，thatbenevolenceandanger，andconsequentlyloveandhatred，arisewhenourhappinessormiseryhaveanydependanceonthehappinessormiseryofanotherperson，withoutanyfartherrelation。Idoubtnotbutthisexperimentwillappearsosingularastoexcuseusforstoppingamomenttoconsiderit。
Suppose，thattwopersonsofthesametradeshou’dseekemploymentinatown，thatisnotabletomaintainboth，`tisplainthesuccessofoneisperfectlyincompatiblewiththatoftheother，andthatwhateverisfortheinterestofeitheriscontrarytothatofhisrival，andsoviceversa。Supposeagain，thattwomerchants，tho’livingindifferentpartsoftheworld，shou’denterintoco-partnershiptogether，theadvantageorlossofonebecomesimmediatelytheadvantageorlossofhispartner，andthesamefortunenecessarilyattendsboth。Now`tisevident，thatinthefirstcase，hatredalwaysfollowsuponthecontrarietyofinterests；asinthesecond，lovearisesfromtheirunion。Letusconsidertowhatprinciplewecanascribethesepassions。
`Tisplaintheyarisenotfromthedoublerelationsofimpressionsandideas，ifweregardonlythepresentsensation。Fortakeingthefirstcaseofrivalship；tho’thepleasureandadvantageofanantagonistnecessarilycausesmypainandloss，yettocounter-ballancethis，hispainandlosscausesmypleasureandadvantage；andsupposinghimtobeunsuccessful，Imaybythismeansreceivefromhimasuperiordegreeofsatisfaction。Inthesamemannerthesuccessofapartnerrejoicesme，butthenhismisfortunesafflictmeinanequalproportion；and`tiseasytoimagine，thatthelattersentimentmayinmanycasespreponderate。Butwhetherthefortuneofarivalorpartnerbegoodorbad，Ialwayshatetheformerandlovethelatter。
Thisloveofapartnercannotproceedfromtherelationorconnexionbetwixtus；inthesamemannerasIloveabrotherorcountryman。Arivalhasalmostasclosearelationtomeasapartner。Forasthepleasureofthelattercausesmypleasure，andhispainmypain；sothepleasureoftheformercausesmypain，andhispainmypleasure。Theconnexion，then，ofcauseandeffectisthesameinbothcases；andifintheonecase，thecauseandeffecthaveafartherrelationofresemblance，theyhavethatofcontrarietyintheother；which，beingalsoaspeciesofresemblance，leavesthematterprettyequal。
Theonlyexplication，then，wecangiveofthisphaenomenonisderiv’dfromthatprincipleofaparalleldirectionabove-mention’d。Ourconcernforourowninterestgivesusapleasureinthepleasure，andapaininthepainofapartner，afterthesamemannerasbysympathywefeelasensationcorrespondenttothose，whichappearinanyperson，whoispresentwithus。Ontheotherhand，thesameconcernforourinterestmakesusfeelapaininthepleasure，andapleasureinthepainofarival；andinshortthesamecontrarietyofsentimentsasarisesfromcomparisonandmalice。Since，therefore，aparalleldirectionoftheaffections，proceedingfrominterest，cangiverisetobenevolenceoranger，nowonderthesameparalleldirection，deriv’dfromsympathyandfromcomparison，shou’dhavethesameeffect。
Ingeneralwemayobserve，that`tisimpossibletodogoodtoothers，fromwhatevermotive，withoutfeelingsometouchesofkindnessandgood-willtowards`em；astheinjurieswedo，notonlycausehatredintheperson，whosuffersthem，buteveninourselves。Thesephaenomena，indeed，mayinpartbeaccountedforfromotherprinciples。
Butherethereoccursaconsiderableobjection，which`twillbenecessarytoexaminebeforeweproceedanyfarther。Ihaveendeavour’dtoprove，thatpowerandriches，orpovertyandmeanness；whichgiverisetoloveorhatred，withoutproducinganyoriginalpleasureoruneasiness；operateuponusbymeansofasecondarysensationderiv’dfromasympathywiththatpainorsatisfaction，whichtheyproduceintheperson，whopossessesthem。Fromasympathywithhispleasurethereariseslove；fromthatwithhisuneasiness，hatred。But`tisamaxim，whichIhavejustnowcstablish’d，andwhichisabsolutelynecessarytotheexplicationofthephaenomenaofpityandmalice，`That`tisnotthepresentsensationormomentarypainorpleasure，whichdeterminesthecharacterofanypassion，butthegeneralbentortendencyofitfromthebeginningtotheend。’Forthisreason，pityorasympathywithpainproduceslove，andthatbecauseitinterestsusinthefortunesofothers，goodorbad，andgivesusasecondarysensationcorrespondenttotheprimary；inwhichithasthesameinfluencewithloveandbenevolence。Sincethenthisruleholdsgoodinonecase，whydoesitnotprevailthroughout，andwhydoessympathyinuneasinesseverproduceanypassionbesidegood-willandkindness？Isitbecomingaphilosophertoalterhismethodofreasoning，andrunfromoneprincipletoitscontrary，accordingtotheparticularphaenomenon，whichhewou’dexplain？
Ihavemention’dtwodifferentcauses，fromwhichatransitionofpassionmayarise，viz，adoublerelationofideasandimpressions，andwhatissimilartoit，aconformityinthetendencyanddirectionofanytwodesires，whicharisefromdifferentprinciples。NowIassert，thatwhenasympathywithuneasinessisweak，itproduceshatredorcontemptbytheformercause；whenstrong，itproducesloveortendernessbythelatter。Thisisthesolutionoftheforegoingdifficulty，whichseemssourgent；andthisisaprinciplefoundedonsuchevidentarguments，thatweoughttohaveestablish’dit，eventho’itwerenotnecessarytotheexplicationofanyphaenomenon。
`Tiscertain，thatsympathyisnotalwayslimitedtothepresentmoment，butthatweoftenfeelbycommunicationthepainsandpleasuresofothers，whicharenotinbeing，andwhichweonlyanticipatebytheforceofimagination。ForsupposingIsawapersonperfectlyunknowntome，who，whileasleepinthefields，wasindangerofbeingtrodunderfootbyhorses，Ishou’dimmediatelyruntohisassistance；andinthisIshou’dbeactuatedbythesameprincipleofsympathy，whichmakesmeconcern’dforthepresentsorrowsofastranger。Thebarementionofthisissufficient。Sympathybeingnothingbutalivelyideaconvertedintoanimpression，`tisevident，that，inconsideringthefuturepossibleorprobableconditionofanyperson，wemayenterintoitwithsovividaconceptionastomakeitourownconcern；andbythatmeansbesensible。ofpainsandpleasures，whichneitherbelongtoourselves，noratthepresentinstanthaveanyrealexistence。
Buthoweverwemaylookforwardtothefutureinsympathizingwithanyperson，theextendingofoursympathydependsinagreatmeasureuponoursenseofhispresentcondition。Tisagreateffortofimagination，toformsuchlivelyideasevenofthepresentsentimentsofothersastofeeltheseverysentiments；but`tisimpossiblewecou’dextendthissympathytothefuture，withoutbeingaidedbysomecircumstanceinthepresent，whichstrikesuponusinalivelymanner。Whenthepresentmiseryofanotherhasanystronginfluenceuponme，thevivacityoftheconceptionisnotconfin’dmerelytoitsimmediateobject，butdiffusesitsinfluenceoveralltherelatedideas，andgivesmealivelynotionofallthecircumstancesofthatperson，whetherpast，present，orfuture；possible，probableorcertain。BymeansofthislivelynotionIaminterestedinthem；takepartwiththem；andfeelasympatheticmotioninmybreast，conformabletowhateverIimagineinhis。IfIdiminishthevivacityofthefirstconception，Idiminishthatoftherelatedideas；aspipescanconveynomorewaterthanwhatarisesatthefountain。BythisdiminutionIdestroythefutureprospect，whichisnecessarytointerestmeperfectlyinthefortuneofanother。Imayfeelthepresentimpression，butcarrymysympathynofarther，andnevertransfusetheforceofthefirstconceptionintomyideasoftherelatedobjects。Ifitbeanother’smisery，whichispresentedinthisfeeblemanner，Ireceiveitbycommunication，andamaffectedwithallthepassionsrelatedtoit:ButasIamnotsomuchinterestedastoconcernmyselfinhisgoodfortune，aswellashisbad，Ineverfeeltheextensivesympathy，northepassionsrelatedtoit。
Nowinordertoknowwhatpassionsarerelatedtothesedifferentkindsofsympathy，wemustconsider，thatbenevolenceisanoriginalpleasurearisingfromthepleasureofthepersonbelov’d，andapainproceedingfromhispain:Fromwhichcorrespondenceofimpressionstherearisesasubsequentdesireofhispleasure，andaversiontohispain。Inorder，then，tomakeapassionrunparallelwithbenevolence，`tisrequisiteweshou’dfeelthesedoubleimpressions，correspondenttothoseoftheperson，whomweconsider；norisanyoneofthemalonesufficientforthatpurpose。Whenwesympathizeonlywithoneimpression，andthatapainfulone，thissympathyisrelatedtoangerandtohatred，uponaccountoftheuneasinessitconveystous。Butastheextensiveorlimitedsympathydependsupontheforceofthefirstsympathy；itfollows，thatthepassionofloveorhatreddependsuponthesameprinciple。Astrongimpression，whencommunicated，givesadoubletendencyofthepassions；whichisrelatedtobenevolenceandlovebyasimilarityofdirection；howeverpainfulthefirstimpressionmighthavebeen。Aweakimpression，thatispainful，isrelatedtoangerandhatredbytheresemblanceofsensations。Benevolence，therefore，arisesfromagreatdegreeofmisery，oranydegreestronglysympathiz’dwith:Hatredorcontemptfromasmalldegree，oroneweaklysympathiz’dwith；whichistheprincipleIintendedtoproveandexplain。
Norhaveweonlyourreasontotrusttoforthisprinciple，butalsoexperience。Acertaindegreeofpovertyproducescontempt；butadegreebeyondcausescompassionandgood-will。Wemayunder-valueapeasantorservant；butwhenthemiseryofabeggarappearsverygreat，orispaintedinverylivelycolours，wesympathizewithhiminhisafflictions；andfeelinourheartevidenttouchesofpityandbenevolence。Thesameobjectcausescontrarypassionsaccordingtoitsdifferentdegrees。Thepassions，therefore，mustdependuponprinciples，thatoperateinsuchcertaindegrees，accordingtomyhypothesis。Theencreaseofthesympathyhasevidentlythesameeffectastheencreaseofthemisery。
Abarrenordesolatecountryalwaysseemsuglyanddisagreeable，andcommonlyinspiresuswithcontemptfortheinhabitants。Thisdeformity，however，proceedsinagreatmeasurefromasympathywiththeinhabitants，ashasbeenalreadyobserv’d；butitisonlyaweakone，andreachesnofartherthantheimmediatesensation，whichisdisagreeable。Theviewofacityinashesconveysbenevolentsentiments；becausewethereentersodeepintotheinterestsofthemiserableinhabitants，astowishfortheirprosperity，aswellasfeeltheiradversity。
Buttho’theforceoftheimpressiongenerallyproducespityandbenevolence，`tiscertain，thatbybeingcarry’dtoofaritceasestohavethateffect。This，perhaps，maybeworthournotice。Whentheuneasinessiseithersmallinitself，orremotefromus，itengagesnottheimagination，norisabletoconveyanequalconcernforthefutureandcontingentgood，asforthepresentandrealeviLUponitsacquiringgreaterforce，webecomesointerestedintheconcernsoftheperson，astobesensiblebothofhisgoodandhadfortune；andfromthatcompleatsympathytherearisespityandbenevolence。But`twilleasilybeimagin’d，thatwherethepresentevilstrikeswithmorethanordinaryforce，itmayentirelyengageourattention，andpreventthatdoublesympathy，above-mention’d。Thuswefind，thattho’everyone，butespeciallywomen，areapttocontractakindnessforcriminals，whogotothescaffold，andreadilyimaginethemtobeuncommonlyhandsomeandwellshaped；yetone，whoispresentatthecruelexecutionoftherack，feelsnosuchtenderemotions；butisinamannerovercomewithhorror，andhasnoleisuretotemperthisuneasysensationbyanyoppositesympathy。
Buttheinstance，whichmakesthemostclearlyformyhypothesis，isthatwhereinbyachangeoftheobjectsweseparatethedoublesympathyevenfromamidlingdegreeofthepassion；inwhichcasewefind，thatpity，insteadofproducingloveandtendernessasusual，alwaysgivesrisetothecontraryaffection。Whenweobserveapersoninmisfortunes，weareaffectedwithpityandlove；buttheauthorofthatmisfortunebecomestheobjectofourstrongesthatred，andisthemoredetestedinproportion`tothedegreeofourcompassion。Nowforwhatreasonshou’dthesamepassionofpityproducelovetotheperson，whosuffersthemisfortune，andhatredtotheperson，whocausesit；unlessitbebecauseinthelattercasetheauthorbearsarelationonlytothemisfortune；whereasinconsideringthesuffererwecarryourviewoneveryside，andwishforhisprosperity，aswellasaresensibleofhisaffliction？
I。shalljustobserve，beforeIleavethepresentsubject，thatthisphaenomenonofthedoublesympathy，anditstendencytocauselove，maycontributetotheproductionofthekindness，whichwenaturallybearourrelationsandacquaintance。Customandrelationmakeusenterdeeplyintothesentimentsofothers；andwhateverfortunewesupposetoattendthem，isrender’dpresenttousbytheimagination，andoperatesasiforiginallyourown。Werejoiceintheirpleasures，andgrievefortheirsorrows，merelyfromtheforceofsympathy。Nothingthatconcernsthemisindifferenttous；andasthiscorrespondenceofsentimentsisthenaturalattendantoflove，itreadilyproducesthataffection。
SECT。X
OfrespectandcontemptTherenowremainsonlytoexplainthepassionofrespectandcontempt，alongwiththeamorousaffection，in。ordertounderstandallthepassionswhichhaveanymixtureofloveorhatred。Letusbeginwithrespectandcontempt。
Inconsideringthequalitiesandcircumstancesofothers，wemayeitherregardthemastheyreallyareinthemselves；ormaymakeacomparisonbetwixtthemandourownqualitiesandcircumstances；ormayjointhesetwomethodsofconsideration。Thegoodqualitiesofothers，fromthefirstpointofview，producelove；fromthesecond，humility；andfromthethird，respect；whichisamixtureofthesetwopassions。Theirbadqualities，afterthesamemanner，causeeitherhatred，orpride，orcontempt，accordingtothelightinwhichwesurveythem。
Thatthereisamixtureofprideincontempt，andofhumilityinrespect，is，Ithink，tooevident，fromtheirveryfeelingorappearance，torequireanyparticularproof。Thatthismixturearisesfromatacitcomparisonofthepersoncontemn’dorrespectedwithourselvesisnolessevident。Thesamemanmaycauseeitherrespect，love，orcontemptbyhisconditionandtalents，accordingastheperson，whoconsidershim，fromhisinferiorbecomeshisequalorsuperior。Inchangingthepointofview，tho’theobjectmayremainthesame，itsproportiontoourselvesentirelyalters；whichisthecauseofanalterationinthepassions。Thesepassions，therefore，arisefromourobservingtheproportion；thatis，fromacomparison。
Ihavealreadyobserv’d，thatthemindhasamuchstrongerpropensitytopridethantohumility，andhaveendeavour’d，fromtheprinciplesofhumannature，toassignacauseforthisphaenomenon。Whethermyreasoningbereceiv’dornot，thephaenomenonisundisputed，andappearsinmanyinstances。Amongtherest，`tisthereasonwhythereisamuchgreatermixtureofprideincontempt，thanofhumilityinrespect，andwhywearemoreelevatedwiththeviewofonebelowus，thanmortify’dwiththepresenceofoneaboveus。Contemptorscornhassostrongatinctureofpride，thattherescarceisanyotherpassiondiscernable:Whereasinesteemorrespect，lovemakesamoreconsiderableingredientthanhumility。Thepassionofvanityissoprompt，thatitrouzesattheleastcall；whilehumilityrequiresastrongerimpulsetomakeitexertitself。
Buthereitmayreasonablybeask’d，whythismixturetakesplaceonlyinsomecases，andappearsnotoneveryoccasion。Allthoseobjects，whichcauselove，whenplac’donanotherperson，arethecausesofpride，whentransfer’dtoourselves；andconsequentlyoughttobecausesofhumility，aswellaslove，whiletheybelongtoothers，andareonlycompar’dtothose，whichweourselvespossess。Inlikemannereveryquality，which，bybeingdirectlyconsider’d，produceshatred，oughtalwaystogiverisetopridebycomparison，andbyamixtureofthesepassionsofhatredandprideoughttoexcitecontemptorscorn。Thedifficultythenis，whyanyobjectsevercausepureloveorhatred，andproducenotalwaysthemixtpassionsofrespectandcontempt。
Ihavesuppos’dallalong，thatthepassionsofloveandpride，andthoseofhumilityandhatredaresimilarintheirsensations，andthatthetwoformerarealwaysagreeable，andthetwolatterpainful。Buttho’thisbeuniversallytrue，`tisobservable，thatthetwoagreeable，aswellasthetwopainfulpassions，havesomedifference，andevencontrarieties，whichdistinguishthem。Nothinginvigoratesandexaltsthemindequallywithprideandvanity；tho’atthesametimeloveortendernessisratherfoundtoweakenandinfeebleit。Thesamedifferenceisobservablebetwixttheuneasypassions。Angerandhatredbestowanewforceonallourthoughtsandactions；whilehumilityandshamedejectanddiscourageus。Ofthesequalitiesofthepassions，`twillbenecessarytoformadistinctidea。Letusremember，thatprideandhatredinvigoratethesoul；andloveandhumilityinfeebleit。
Fromthisitfollows，thattho’theconformitybetwixtloveandhatredintheagreeablenessoftheirsensationmakesthemalwaysbeexcitedbythesameobjects，yetthisothercontrarietyisthereason，whytheyareexcitedinverydifferentdegrees。Geniusandlearningarepleasantandmagnificentobjects，andbyboththesecircumstancesareadaptedtoprideandvanity；buthavearelationtolovebytheirpleasureonly。Ignoranceandsimplicityaredisagreeableandmean，whichinthesamemannergivesthemadoubleconnexionwithhumility，andasingleonewithhatred。Wemay，therefore，consideritascertain，thattho’thesameobjectalwaysproducesloveandpride，humilityandhatred，accordingtoitsdifferentsituations，yetitseldomproduceseitherthetwoformerorthetwolatterpassions，inthesameproportion。
`Tisherewemustseekforasolutionofthedifficultyabove-mention’d，whyanyobjecteverexcitespureloveorhatred，anddoesnotalwaysproducerespectorcontempt，byamixtureofhumilityorpride。Noqualityin-anothergivesrisetohumilitybycomparison，unlessitwou’dhaveproduc’dpridebybeingplac’dinourselves；andviceversanoobjectexcitespridebycomparison，unlessitwou’dhaveproduc’dhumilitybythedirectsurvey。Thisisevident，objectsalwaysproducebycomparisonasensationdirectlycontrarytotheiroriginalone。Suppose，therefore，anobjecttobepresented，whichispeculiarlyfittedtoproducelove，butimperfectlytoexcitepride；thisobject，belongingtoanother，givesrisedirectlytoagreatdegreeoflove，buttoasmalloneofhumilitybycomparison；andconsequentlythatlatterpassionisscarcefeltinthecompound，norisabletoconverttheloveintorespect。Thisisthecasewithgoodnature，goodhumour，facility，generosity，beauty，andmanyotherqualities。Thesehaveapeculiaraptitudetoproduceloveinothers；butnotsogreatatendencytoexciteprideinourselves:Forwhichreasontheviewofthem，asbelongingtoanotherperson，producespurelove，withbutasmallmixtureofhumilityandrespect。`Tiseasytoextendthesamereasoningtotheoppositepassions。
Beforeweleavethissubject，itmaynotbeamisstoaccountforaprettycuriousphaenomenon，viz，whywecommonlykeepatadistancesuchaswecontemn，andallownotourinferiorstoapproachtooneareveninplaceandsituation。Ithasalreadybeenobserv’d，thatalmosteverykindofideaisattendedwithsomeemotion，eventheideasofnumberandextension，muchmorethoseofsuchobjectsasareesteem’dofconsequenceinlife，andfixourattention。Tisnotwithentireindifferencewecansurveyeitherarichmanorapoorone，butmustfeelsomefainttouchesatleast，ofrespectintheformercase，andofcontemptinthelatter。Thesetwopassionsarecontrarytoeachother；butinordertomakethiscontrarietybefelt，theobjectsmustbesomewayrelated；otherwisetheaffectionsaretotallyseparateanddistinct，andneverencounter。Therelationtakesplacewhereverthepersonsbecomecontiguous；whichisageneralreasonwhyweareuneasyatseeingsuchdisproportion’dobjects，asarichmanandapoorone，anoblemanandaporter，inthatsituation。
Thisuneasiness，whichiscommontoeveryspectator，mustbemoresensibletothesuperior；andthatbecausethenearapproachoftheinferiorisregardedas。apieceofillbreeding，andshewsthatheisnotsensibleofthedisproportion，andisnowayaffectedbyit。Asenseofsuperiorityinanotherbreedsinallmenaninclinationtokeepthemselvesatadistancefromhim，anddeterminesthemtoredoublethemarksofrespectandreverence，whentheyareoblig’dtoapproachhim；andwheretheydonotobservethatconduct，`tisaprooftheyarenotsensibleofhissuperiority。Fromhencetooitproceeds，thatanygreatdifferenceinthedegreesofanyqualityiscall’dadistancebyacommonmetaphor，which，howevertrivialitmayappear，isfoundedonnaturalprinciplesoftheimagination。Agreatdifferenceinclinesustoproduceadistance。Theideasofdistanceanddifferenceare，therefore，connectedtogether。Connectedideasarereadilytakenforeachother；andthisisingeneralthesourceofthemetaphor，asweshallhaveoccasiontoobserveafterwards。
SECT。XIOftheamorouspassion，orlovebetwixtthesexesOfallthecompoundpassions，whichproceedfromamixtureofloveandhatredwithotheraffections，noonebetterdeservesourattention，thanthatlove，whicharisesbetwixtthesexes，aswellonaccountofitsforceandviolence，asthosecuriousprinciplesofphilosophy，forwhichitaffordsusanuncontestableargument。`Tisplain，thatthisaffection，initsmostnaturalstate，isderiv’dfromtheconjunctionofthreedifferentimpressionsorpassions，viz。Thepleasingsensationarisingfrombeauty；thebodilyappetiteforgeneration；andagenerouskindnessorgood-will。Theoriginofkindnessfrombeautymaybeexplain’dfromtheforegoingreasoning。Thequestionishowthebodilyappetiteisexcitedbyit。
Theappetiteofgeneration，whenconfin’dtoacertaindegree，isevidentlyofthepleasantkind，andhasastrongconnexionwith，alltheagreeableemotions。Joy，mirth。vanity，andkindnessareallincentivestothisdesire；aswellasmusic，dancing，wine，andgoodcheer。Ontheotherhand，sorrow，melancholy，poverty，humilityaredestructiveofit。Fromthisquality`tiseasilyconceiv’dwhyitshou’dbeconnectedwiththesenseofbeauty。
Butthereisanotherprinciplethatcontributestothesameeffect。Ihaveobserv’dthattheparalleldirectionofthedesiresisarealrelation，andnolessthanaresemblanceintheirsensation，producesaconnexionamongthem。Thatwemayfullycomprehendtheextentofthisrelation，wemustconsider，thatanyprincipaldesiremaybeattendedwithsubordinateones，whichareconnectedwithit，andtowhichifotherdesiresareparallel，theyarebythatmeansrelatedtotheprincipalone。Thushungermayoftbeconsider’dastheprimaryinclinationofthesoul，andthedesireofapproachingthemeatasthesecondaryone；since`tisabsolutelynecessarytothesatisfyingthatappetite。Ifanobject，therefore，byanyseparatequalities，inclinesustoapproachthemeat，itnaturallyencreasesourappetite；asonthecontrary，whateverinclinesustosetourvictualsatadistance，iscontradictorytohunger，anddiminishesourinclinationtothem。Now`tisplainthatbeautyhasthefirsteffect，anddeformitythesecond:Whichisthereasonwhytheformergivesusakeenerappetiteforourvictuals，andthelatterissufficienttodisgustusatthemostsavourydish。thatcookeryhasinvented。Allthisiseasilyapplicabletotheappetiteforgeneration。
Fromthesetworelations，viz，resemblanceandaparalleldesire，therearisessuchaconnexionbetwixtthesenseofbeauty，thebodilyappetite，andbenevolence，thattheybecomeinamannerinseparable:Andwefindfromexperiencethat`tisindifferentwhichofthemadvancesfirst；sinceanyofthemisalmostsuretobeattendedwiththerelatedaffections。One，whoisinflam’dwithlust，feelsatleastamomentarykindnesstowardstheobjectofit，andatthesametimefancieshermorebeautifulthanordinary；astherearemany，whobeginwithkindnessandesteemforthewitandmeritoftheperson，andadvancefromthattotheotherpassions。Butthemostcommonspeciesofloveisthatwhichfirstarisesfrombeauty，andafterwardsdiffusesitselfintokindnessandintothebodilyappetite。Kindnessoresteem，andtheappetitetogeneration，aretooremotetouniteeasilytogether。Theoneis，perhaps，themostrefin’dpassionofthesoul；theotherthemostgrossandvulgar。Theloveofbeautyisplac’dinajustmediumbetwixtthem，andpartakesofboththeirnatures:Fromwhenceitproceeds，that`tissosingularlyfittedtoproduceboth。
Thisaccountofloveisnotpeculiartomysystem，butisunavoidableonanyhypothesis。Thethreeaffections，whichcomposethispassion，areevidentlydistinct，andhaseachofthemitsdistinctobject。Tiscertain，therefore，that`tisonlybytheirrelationtheyproduceeachother。Buttherelationofpassionsisnotalonesufficient。Tislikewisenecessary，thereshou’dbearelationofideas。Thebeautyofonepersonneverinspiresuswithloveforanother。Thisthenisasensibleproofofthedoublerelationofimpressionsandideas。Fromoneinstancesoevidentasthiswemayformajudgmentoftherest。
ThismayalsoserveinanotherviewtoillustratewhatIhaveinsistedonconcerningtheoriginofprideandhumility，loveandhatred。Ihaveobserv’d，thattho’selfbetheobjectofthefirstsetofpassions，andsomeotherpersonofthesecond，yettheseobjectscannotalonebethecausesofthepassions；ashavingeachofthemarelationtotwocontraryaffections，whichmustfromtheveryfirstmomentdestroyeachother。Herethenisthesituationofthemind，asIhavealreadydescrib’dit。Ithascertainorgansnaturallyfittedtoproduceapassion；thatpassion，whenproduc’d，naturallyturnstheviewtoacertainobject。Butthisnotbeingsufficienttoproducethepassion，thereisrequir’dsomeotheremotion，whichbyadoublerelationofimpressionsandideasmaysettheseprinciplesinaction，andbestowonthemtheirfirstimpulse。Thissituationisstillmoreremarkablewithregardtotheappetiteofgeneration。Sexisnotonlytheobject，butalsothecauseoftheappetite。Wenotonlyturnourviewtoit，whenactuatedbythatappetite；butthereflectingonitsufficestoexcitetheappetite。Butasthiscauselosesitsforcebytoogreatfrequency，`tisnecessaryitshou’dbequicken’dbysomenewimpulse；andthatimpulsewefindtoarisefromthebeautyoftheperson；thatis，fromadoublerelationofimpressionsandideas。Sincethisdoublerelationisnecessarywhereanaffectionhasbothadistinctcause，andobject，howmuchmoreso，whereithasonlyadistinctobject，withoutanydeterminatecause？
OftheloveandhatredofanimalsButtopassfromthepassionsofloveandhatred，andfromtheirmixturesandcompositions，astheyappearmman，tothesameaffections，astheydisplaythemselvesinbrutes；wemayobserve，notonlythatloveandhatredarecommontothewholesensitivecreation，butlikewisethattheircauses，asabove-explain’d，areofsosimpleanature，thattheymayeasilybesuppos’dtooperateonmereanimals。Thereisnoforceofreflectionorpenetrationrequir’d。Everythingisconductedbyspringsandprinciples，whicharenotpeculiartoman，oranyonespeciesofanimals。Theconclusionfromthisisobviousinfavouroftheforegoingsystem。
Loveinanimals，hasnotforitsonlyobjectanimalsofthesamespecies，butextendsitselffarther，andcomprehendsalmosteverysensibleandthinkingbeing。Adognaturallylovesamanabovehisownspecies，andverycommonlymeetswithareturnofaffection。
Asanimalsarebutlittlesusceptibleeitherofthepleasuresorpainsoftheimagination，theycanjudgeofobjectsonlybythesensiblegoodorevil，whichtheyproduce，andfromthatmustregulatetheiraffectionstowardsthem。Accordinglywefind，thatbybenefitsorinjuriesweproducetheirloveorhatred；andthatbyfeedingandcherishinganyanimal，wequicklyacquirehisaffections；asbybeatingandabusinghimweneverfailtodrawonushisenmityandill-will。
Loveinbeastsisnotcaus’dsomuchbyrelation，asinourspecies；andthatbecausetheirthoughtsarenotsoactiveastotracerelations，exceptinveryobviousinstances。Yet`tiseasytoremark，thatonsomeoccasionsithasaconsiderableinfluenceuponthem。Thusacquaintance，whichhasthesameeffectasrelation，alwaysproducesloveinanimalseithertomenortoeachother。Forthesamereasonanylikenessamongthemisthesourceofaffection。Anoxconfin’dtoaparkwithhorses，willnaturallyjointheircompany，ifImaysospeak，butalwaysleavesittoenjoythatofhisownspecies，wherehehasthechoiceofboth。
Theaffectionofparentstotheiryoungproceedsfromapeculiarinstinctinanimals，aswellasinourspecies。
`Tisevident，thatsympathy，orthecommunicationofpassions，takesplaceamonganimals，nolessthanamongmen。Fear，anger，courage，andotheraffectionsarefrequentlycommunicatedfromoneanimaltoanother，withouttheirknowledgeofthatcause，whichproduc’dtheoriginalpassion。Grieflikewiseisreceiv’dbysympathy；andproducesalmostallthesameconsequences，andexcitesthesameemotionsasinourspecies。Thehowlingsandlamentationsofadogproduceasensibleconcerninhisfellows。And`tisremarkable，thattho’almostallanimalsuseinplaythesamemember，andnearlythesameactionasinfighting；alion，atyger，acattheirpaws；anoxhishorns；adoghisteeth；ahorsehisheels:Yettheymostcarefullyavoidharmingtheircompanion，eventho’theyhavenothingtofearfromhisresentment；whichisanevidentproofofthesensebruteshaveofeachother’spainandpleasure。
Everyonehasobserv’dhowmuchmoredogsareanimatedwhentheyhuntinapack，thanwhentheypursuetheirgameapart；and`tisevidentthiscanproceedfromnothingbutfromsympathy。Tisalsowellknowntohunters，thatthiseffectfollowsinagreaterdegree，andevenintoo。greatadegree，wheretwopacks，thatarestrangerstoeachother，arejoin’dtogether。Wemight，perhaps，beatalosstoexplainthisphaenomenon，ifwehadnotexperienceofasimilarinourselves。
Envyandmalicearepassionsveryremarkableinanimals。Theyareperhapsmorecommonthanpity；asrequiringlesseffortofthoughtandimagination。
OfthewillanddirectpassionsSECT。IOflibertyandnecessityWecomenowtoexplainthedirectpassions，ortheimpressions，whichariseimmediatelyfromgoodorevil，frompainorpleasure。Ofthiskindare，desireandaversion，griefandjoy，hopeandfear。
Ofalltheimmediateeffectsofpainandpleasure，thereisnonemoreremarkablethantheWILL；andrho’properlyspeaking，itbenotcomprehendedamongthepassions，yetasthefullunderstandingofitsnatureandproperties，isnecessarytotheexplanationofthem，weshallheremakeitthesubjectofourenquiry。Idesireitmaybeobserv’d，thatbythewill，Imeannothingbuttheinternalimpressionwefeelandareconsciousof，whenweknowinglygiverisetoanynewmotionofourbody，ornewperceptionofourmind。Thisimpression，liketheprecedingonesofprideandhumility，loveandhatred，`tisimpossibletodefine，andneedlesstodescribeanyfarther；forwhichreasonweshallcutoffallthosedefinitionsanddistinctions，withwhichphilosophersarewonttoperplexratherthandearupthisquestion；andenteringatfirstuponthesubject，shallexaminethatlongdisputedquestionconcerninglibertyandnecessity；whichoccurssonaturallyintreatingofthewill。
Tisuniversallyacknowledg’d，thattheoperationsofexternalbodiesarenecessary，andthatinthecommunicationoftheirmotion，intheirattraction，andmutualcohesion，therearenortheleasttracesofindifferenceorliberty。Everyobjectisdetermin’dbyanabsolutefatetoacertaindegreeanddirectionofirsmotion，andcannomoredepartfromthatpreciseline，inwhichitmoves，thanitcanconvertitselfintoanangel，orspirit，oranysuperiorsubstance。Theactions，therefore，ofmatteraretoberegardedasinstancesofnecessaryactions；andwhateverisinthisrespectonthesamefootingwithmatter，mustbeacknowledg’dtobenecessary。Thatwemayknowwhetherthisbethecasewiththeactionsofthemind，weshallbeginwithexaminingmatter，andconsideringonwhattheideaofanecessityinitsoperationsarefounded，andwhyweconcludeonebodyoractiontobetheinfalliblecauseofanother。
Ithasbeenobserv’dalready，thatinnosingleinstancetheultimateconnexionofanyobjectsisdiscoverable，eitherbyoursensesorreason，andthatwecanneverpenetratesofarintotheessenceandconstructionofbodies，astoperceivetheprinciple，onwhichtheirmutualinfluencedepends。Tistheirconstantunionalone，withwhichweareacquainted；and`tisfromtheconstantunionthenecessityarises。Ifobjectshadnoranuniformandregularconjunctionwitheachother，weshou’dneverarriveatanyideaofcauseandeffect；andevenafterall，thenecessity，whichentersintothatidea，isnothingbutadeterminationofthemindtopassfromoneobjecttoitsusualattendant，andinfertheexistenceofonefromthatoftheother。Herethenaretwoparticulars，whichwearetoconsiderasessentialtonecessity，viz，theconstantunionandtheinferenceofthemind；andwhereverwediscoverthesewemustacknowledgeanecessity。Astheactionsofmatterhavenonecessity，butwhatisderiv’dfromthesecircumstances，anditisnotbyanyinsightintotheessenceofbodieswediscovertheirconnexion，theabsenceofthisinsight，whiletheunionandinferenceremain，willnever，inanycase，removethenecessity。`Tistheobservationoftheunion，whichproducestheinference；forwhichreasonitmightbethoughtsufficient，ifweproveaconstantunionintheactionsofthemind，inordertoestablishtheinference，alongwiththenecessityoftheseactions。ButthatImaybestowagreaterforceonmyreasoning，Ishallexaminetheseparticularsapart，andshallfirstprovefromexperiencethatouractionshaveaconstantunionwithourmotives，tempers，andcircumstances，beforeIconsidertheinferenceswedrawfromit。
Tothisendaveryslightandgeneralviewofthecommoncourseofhumanaffairswillbesufficient。Thereisnolight，inwhichwecantakethem，thatdoesnorconfirmthisprinciple。Whetherweconsidermankindaccordingtothedifferenceofsexes，ages，governments，conditions，ormethodsofeducation；thesameuniformityandregularoperationofnaturalprinciplesarediscernible。Ukecausesstillproducelikeeffects；inthesamemannerasinthemutualactionoftheelementsandpowersofnature。
Therearedifferenttrees，whichregularlyproducefruit，whoserelishisdifferentfromeachother；andthisregularitywillbeadmittedasaninstanceofnecessityandcausesinexternalbodies。ButaretheproductsofGuienneandofChampagnemoreregularlydifferentthanthesentiments，actions，andpassionsofthetwosexes，ofwhichtheonearedistinguish’dbytheirforceandmaturity，theotherbytheirdelicacyandsoftness？
Arethechangesofourbodyfrominfancytooldagemoreregularandcertainthanthoseofourmindandconduct？Andwou’damanbemoreridiculous，whowou’dexpectthataninfantoffouryearsoldwillraiseaweightofthreehundredpound，thanone，whofromapersonofthesameage。wou’dlookforaphilosophicalreasoning，oraprudentandwell-concertedaction？
Wemustcertainlyallow，thatthecohesionofthepartsofmatterarisesfromnaturalandnecessaryprinciples，whateverdifficultywemayfindinexplainingthem:Andforareasonwemustallow，thathumansocietyisfoundedonlikeprinciples；andourreasoninthelattercase，isbetterthaneventhatintheformer；becausewenotonlyobserve，thatmenalwaysseeksociety，butcanalsoexplaintheprinciples，onwhichthisuniversalpropensityisfounded。Forisitmorecertain，thattwoflatpiecesofmarblewillunitetogether，thanthattwoyoungsavagesofdifferentsexeswillcopulate？Dothechildrenarisefromthiscopulationmoreuniformly，thandoestheparentscarefortheirsafetyandpreservation？Andaftertheyhavearriv’datyearsofdiscretionbythecareoftheirparents，aretheinconvenienciesattendingtheirseparationmorecertainthantheirforesightoftheseinconvenienciesandtheircareofavoidingthembyacloseunionandconfederacy？
Theskin，pores，muscles，andnervesofaday-laboureraredifferentfromthoseofamanofquality:Soarehissentiments，actionsandmanners。Thedifferentstationsoflifeinfluencethewholefabric，externalandinternal；anddifferentstationsarisenecessarily，becauseuniformly，fromthenecessaryanduniformprinciplesofhumannature。Mencannotlivewithoutsociety，andcannotbeassociatedwithoutgovernment。Governmentmakesadistinctionofproperty，andestablishesthedifferentranksofmen。Thisproducesindustry，traffic，manufactures，law-suits，war，leagues，alliances，voyages，travels，cities，fleets，ports，andallthoseotheractionsandobjects，whichcausesuchadiversity，andatthesametimemaintainsuchanuniformityinhumanlife。
Shou’datraveller，returningfromafarcountry，tellus，thathehadseenaclimateinthefiftiethdegreeofnorthernlatitude，whereallthefruitsripenandcometoperfectioninthewinter，anddecayinthesummer，afterthesamemannerasinEnglandtheyareproduc’danddecayinthecontraryseasons，hewou’dfindfewsocredulousastobelievehim。Iamapttothinkatravellarwou’dmeetwithaslittlecredit，whoshou’dinformusofpeopleexactlyofthesamecharacterwiththoseinPlato’srepublicontheonehand，orthoseinHobbes’sLeviathanontheother。Thereisageneralcourseofnatureinhumanactions，aswellasintheoperationsofthesunandtheclimate。Therearealsocharacterspeculiartodifferentnationsandparticularpersons，aswellascommontomankind。Theknowledgeofthesecharactersisfoundedontheobservationofanuniformityintheactions，thatflowfromthem；andthisuniformityformstheveryessenceofnecessity。
Icanimagineonlyonewayofeludingthisargument，whichisbydenyingthatuniformityofhumanactions，onwhichitisfounded。Aslongasactionshaveaconstantunionandconnexionwiththesituationandtemperoftheagent，howeverwemayinwordsrefusetoacknowledgethenecessity，wereallyallowthething。Nowsomemay，perhaps，findapretexttodenythisregularunionandconnexion。Forwhatismorecapriciousthanhumanactions？Whatmoreinconstantthanthedesiresofman？Andwhatcreaturedepartsmorewidely，notonlyfromrightreason，butfromhisowncharacteranddisposition？Anhour，amomentissufficienttomakehimchangefromoneextremetoanother，andoverturnwhatcostthegreatestpainandlabourtoestablish。Necessityisregularandcertain。Humanconductisirregularanduncertain。Theone，therefore，proceedsnotfromtheother。
TothisIreply，thatinjudgingoftheactionsofmenwemustproceeduponthesamemaxims，aswhenwereasonconcerningexternalobjects。Whenanyphaenomenaareconstantlyandinvariablyconjoin’dtogether，theyacquiresuchaconnexionintheimagination，thatitpassesfromonetotheother，withoutanydoubtorhesitation。Butbelowthistherearemanyinferiordegreesofevidenceandprobability，nordoesonesinglecontrarietyofexperimententirelydestroyallourreasoning。Themindballancesthecontraryexperiments，anddeductingtheinferiorfromthesuperior，proceedswiththatdegreeofassuranceorevidence，whichremains。Evenwhenthesecontraryexperimentsareentirelyequal，weremovenotthenotionofcausesandnecessity；butsupposingthattheusualcontrarietyproceedsfromtheoperationofcontraryandconceal’dcauses，weconclude，thatthechanceorindifferenceliesonlyinourjudgmentonaccountofourimperfectknowledge，notinthethingsthemselves，whichareineverycaseequallynecessary，tho’toappearancenotequallyconstantorcertain。Nounioncanbemoreconstantandcertain，thanthatofsomeactionswithsomemotivesandcharacters；andifinothercasestheunionisuncertain，`tisnomorethanwhathappensintheoperationsofbody，norcanweconcludeanythingfromtheoneirregularity，whichwillnotfollowequallyfromtheother。
Tiscommonlyallow’dthatmad-menhavenoliberty。Butwerewetojudgebytheiractions，thesehavelessregularityandconstancythantheactionsofwise-men，andconsequentlyarefartherremov’dfromnecessity。Ourwayofthinkinginthisparticularis，therefore，absolutelyinconsistent；butisanaturalconsequenceoftheseconfus’dideasandundefin’dterms，whichwesocommonlymakeuseofinourreasonings，especiallyonthepresentsubject。
Wemustnowshew，thatastheunionbetwixtmotivesandactionshasthesameconstancy，asthatinanynaturaloperations，soitsinfluenceontheunderstandingisalsothesame，indeterminingustoinfertheexistenceofonefromthatofanother。Ifthisshallappear，thereisnoknowncircumstance，thatentersintotheconnexionandproductionoftheactionsofmatter，thatisnottobefoundinalltheoperationsofthemind；andconsequentlywecannot，withoutamanifestabsurdity，attributenecessitytotheone，andrefuseintotheother。
Thereisnophilosopher，whosejudgmentissorivetedtothisfantasticalsystemofliberty，asnottoacknowledgetheforceofmoralevidence，andbothinspeculationandpracticeproceeduponit，asuponareasonablefoundation。Nowmoralevidenceisnothingbutaconclusionconcerningtheactionsofmen，deriv’dfromtheconsiderationoftheirmotives，temperandsituation。Thuswhenweseecertaincharactersorfiguresdescrib’duponpaper，weinferthattheperson，whoproduc’dthem，wou’daffirmsuchfacts，thedeathofCaesar，thesuccessofAugustus，thecrueltyofNero；andrememberingmanyotherconcurrenttestimoniesweconclude，thatthosefactswereoncereallyexistant，andthatsomanymen，withoutanyinterest，wou’dneverconspiretodeceiveus；especiallysincetheymust，intheattempt，exposethemselvestothederisionofalltheircontemporaries，whenthesefactswereassertedtoberecentanduniversallyknown。Thesamekindofreasoningrunsthro’politics，war，commerce，economy，andindeedmixesitselfsoentirelyinhumanlife，that`tisimpossibletoactorsubsistamomentwithouthavingrecoursetoit。Aprince，whoimposesataxuponhissubjects，expectstheircompliance。Ageneral，whoconductsanarmy，makesaccountofacertaindegreeofcourage。Amerchantlooksforfidelityandskillinhisfactororsuper-cargo。Aman，whogivesordersforhisdinner，doubtsnotoftheobedienceofhisservants。Inshort，asnothingmorenearlyinterestsusthanourownactionsandthoseofothers，thegreatestpartofourreasoningsisemploy’dinjudgmentsconcerningthem。NowIassert，thatwhoeverreasonsafterthismanner，doesipsofactobelievetheactionsofthewilltoarisefromnecessity，andthatheknowsnotwhathemeans，whenhedeniesit。
Allthoseobjects，ofwhichwecalltheonecauseandtheothereffect，consider’dinthemselves，areasdistinctandseparatefromeachother，asanytwothingsinnature，norcanweever，bythemostaccuratesurveyofthem，infertheexistenceoftheonefromthatoftheother。`Tisonlyfromexperienceandtheobservationoftheirconstantunion，thatweareabletoformthisinference；andevenafterall，theinferenceisnothingbuttheeffectsofcustomontheimagination。Wemustnotherebecontentwithsaying，thattheideaofcauseandeffectarisesfromobjectsconstantlyunited；butmustaffirm，that`tistheverysamewiththeideaofthoseobjects，andthatthenecessaryconnexionisnotdiscover’dbyaconclusionoftheunderstanding，butismerelyaperceptionofthemind。Wherever，therefore，weobservethesameunion，andwherevertheunionoperatesinthesamemanneruponthebeliefandopinion，wehavetheideaofcausesandnecessity，tho’perhapswemayavoidthoseexpressions。Motioninonebodyinallpastinstances，thathavefallenunderourobservation，isfollow’duponimpulsebymotioninanother。`Tisimpossibleforthemindtopenetratefarther。Fromthisconstantunionitformstheideaofcauseandeffect，andbyitsinfluencefeelsthenecessity。Asthereisthesameconstancy，andthesameinfluenceinwhatwecallmoralevidence，Iasknomore。Whatremainscanonlybeadisputeofwords。
Andindeed，whenweconsiderhowaptlynaturalandmoralevidencecementtogether，andformonlyonechainofargumentbetwixtthem，weshallmakenoscrupletoallow，thattheyareofthesamenature，andderiv’dfromthesameprinciples。Aprisoner，whohasneithermoneynorinterest，discoverstheimpossibilityofhisescape，aswellfromtheobstinacyofthegoaler，asfromthewallsandbarswithwhichheissurrounded；andinallattemptsforhisfreedomchusesrathertoworkuponthestoneandironoftheone，thanupontheinflexiblenatureoftheother。Thesameprisoner，whenconductedtothescaffold，foreseeshisdeathascertainlyfromtheconstancyandfidelityofhisguardsasfromtheoperationoftheaxorwheel。Hismindrunsalongacertaintrainofideas:Therefusalofthesoldierstoconsenttohisescape，theactionoftheexecutioner；theseparationoftheheadandbody；bleeding，convulsivemotions，anddeath。Hereisaconnectedchainofnaturalcausesandvoluntaryactions；butthemindfeelsnodifferencebetwixttheminpassingfromonelinktoanother；norislesscertainofthefutureeventthanifitwereconnectedwiththepresentimpressionsofthememoryandsensesbyatrainofcausescementedtogetherbywhatwearepleas’dtocallaphysicalnecessity。Thesameexperienc’dunionhasthesameeffectonthemind，whethertheunitedobjectsbemotives，volitionsandactions；orfigureandmotion。Wemaychangethenamesofthings；buttheirnatureandtheiroperationontheunderstandingneverchange。
Idarebepositivenoonewilleverendeavourtorefutethesereasoningsotherwisethanbyalteringmydefinitions，andassigningadifferentmeaningtothetermsofcause，andeffect，andnecessity，andliberty，andchance。Accordingtomydefinitions，necessitymakesanessentialpartofcausation；andconsequentlyliberty，byremovingnecessity，removesalsocauses，andistheverysamethingwithchance。Aschanceiscommonlythoughttoimplyacontradiction，andisatleastdirectlycontrarytoexperience，therearealwaysthesameargumentsagainstlibertyorfree-will。Ifanyonealtersthedefinitions，Icannotpretendtoarguewithhim，`tillIknowthemeaningheassignstotheseterms。
SECT。IIThesamesubjectcontinu’dIbelievewemayassignthethreefollowingreasonsfortheprevalanceofthedoctrineofliberty，howeverabsurditmaybeinonesense，andunintelligibleinanyother。First，Afterwehaveperform’danyaction；tho’weconfesswewereinfluenc’dbyparticularviewsandmotives；`tisdifficultforustopersuadeourselvesweweregovern’dbynecessity，andthat`twasutterlyimpossibleforustohaveactedotherwise；theideaofnecessityseemingtoimplysomethingofforce，andviolence，andconstraint，ofwhichwearenotsensible。Fewarecapableofdistinguishingbetwixtthelibertyofspontaniety，asitiscall’dintheschools，andthelibertyofindifference；betwixtthatwhichisoppos’dtoviolence，andthatwhichmeansanegationofnecessityandcauses。Thefirstiseventhemostcommonsenseoftheword；andas`tisonlythatspeciesofliberty，whichitconcernsustopreserve，ourthoughtshavebeenprincipallyturn’dtowardsit，andhavealmostuniversallyconfoundeditwiththeother。
Secondly，Thereisafalsesensationorexperienceevenofthelibertyofindifference；whichisregardedasanargumentforitsrealexistence。Thenecessityofanyaction，whetherofmatterorofthemind，isnotproperlyaqualityintheagent，butinanythinkingorintelligentbeing，whomayconsidertheaction，andconsistsinthedeterminationofhisthoughttoinferitsexistencefromsomeprecedingobjects:Aslibertyorchance，ontheotherhand，isnothingbutthewantofthatdetermination，andacertainlooseness，whichwefeelinpassingornotpassingfromtheideaofonetothatoftheother。Nowwemayobserve，thattho’inreflectingonhumanactionsweseldomfeelsuchaloosenessorindifference，yetitverycommonlyhappens，thatinperformingtheactionsthemselveswearesensibleofsomethinglikeit:Andasallrelatedorresemblingobjectsarereadilytakenforeachother，thishasbeenemploy’dasademonstrativeorevenanintuitiveproofofhumanliberty。Wefeelthatouractionsaresubjecttoourwillonmostoccasions，andimaginewefeelthatthewillitselfissubjecttonothing；becausewhenbyadenialofitweareprovok’dtotry，wefeelthatitmoveseasilyeveryway，andproducesanimageofitselfevenonthatside，onwhichitdidnotsettle。Thisimageorfaintmotion，wepersuadeourselves，cou’dhavebeencompleatedintothethingitself；because，shou’dthatbedeny’d，wefind，uponasecondtrial，thatitcan。Buttheseeffortsareallinvain；andwhatevercapriciousandirregularactionswemayperform；asthedesireofshowingourlibertyisthesolemotiveofouractions；wecanneverfreeourselvesfromthebondsofnecessity。Wemayimaginewefeelalibertywithinourselves；butaspectatorcancommonlyinferouractionsfromourmotivesandcharacter；andevenwherehecannot，heconcludesingeneral，thathemight，wereheperfectlyacquaintedwitheverycircumstanceofoursituationandtemper，andthemostsecretspringsofourcomplexionanddisposition。Nowthisistheveryessenceofnecessity，accordingtotheforegoingdoctrine。
Athirdreasonwhythedoctrineoflibertyhasgenerallybeenbetterreceiv’dintheworld，thanitsantagonist，proceedsfromreligion，whichhasbeenveryunnecessarilyinterestedinthisquestion。Thereisnomethodofreasoningmorecommon，andyetnonemoreblameable，thaninphilosophicaldebatestoendeavourtorefuteanyhypothesisbyapretextofitsdangerousconsequencestoreligionandmorality。Whenanyopinionleadsusintoabsurdities，`tiscertainlyfalse；but`tisnotcertainanopinionisfalse，because`tisofdangerousconsequence。Suchtopics，therefore，oughtentirelytobeforeborn，asservingnothingtothediscoveryoftruth，butonlytomakethepersonofanantagonistodious。ThisIobserveingeneral，withoutpretendingtodrawanyadvantagefromit。Isubmitmyselffranklytoanexaminationofthiskind，anddareventuretoaffirm，thatthedoctrineofnecessity，accordingtomyexplicationofit，isnotonlyinnocent，butevenadvantageoustoreligionandmorality。
