Idefinenecessitytwoways，conformabletothetwodefinitionsofcause，ofwhichitmakesanessentialpart。Iplaceiteitherintheconstantunionandconjunctionoflikeobjects，orintheinferenceofthemindfromtheonetotheother。Nownecessity，inboththesesenses，hasuniversally，tho’tacitely，intheschools，inthepulpit，andincommonlife，beenallow’dtobelongtothewillofman，andnoonehaseverpretendedtodeny，thatwecandrawinferencesconcerninghumanactions，andthatthoseinferencesarefoundedontheexperienc’dunionoflikeactionswithlikemotivesandcircumstances。Theonlyparticularinwhichanyonecandifferfromme，iseither，thatperhapshewillrefusetocallthisnecessity。Butaslongasthemeaningisunderstood，Ihopethewordcandonoharm。Orthathewillmaintainthereissomethingelseintheoperationsofmatter。Nowwhetheritbesoornotisofnoconsequencetoreligion，whateveritmaybetonaturalphilosophy。Imaybemistakeninasserting，thatwehavenoideaofanyotherconnexionintheactionsofbody，andshallbegladtobefartherinstructedonthathead:ButsureIam，Iascribenothingtotheactionsofthemind，butwhatmustreadilybeallow’dof。Letnoone，therefore，putaninvidiousconstructiononmywords，bysayingsimply，thatIassertthenecessityofhumanactions，andplacethemonthesamefootingwiththeoperationsofsenselessmatter。Idonotascribetothewillthatunintelligiblenecessity，whichissuppos’dtolieinmatter。ButIascribetomatter，thatintelligiblequality，callitnecessityornot，whichthemostrigorousorthodoxydoesormustallowtobelongtothewill。Ichange，therefore，nothinginthereceiv’dsystems，withregardtothewill，butonlywithregardtomaterialobjects。
NayIshallgofarther，andassert，thatthiskindofnecessityissoessentialtoreligionandmorality，thatwithoutittheremustensueanabsolutesubversionofboth，andthateveryothersuppositionisentirelydestructivetoalllawsbothdivineandhuman。`Tisindeedcertain，thatasallhumanlawsarefoundedonrewardsandpunishments，`tissuppos’dasafundamentalprinciple，thatthesemotiveshaveaninfluenceonthemind，andbothproducethegoodandpreventtheevilactions。Wemaygivetothisinfluencewhatnameweplease；butas`tisusuallyconjoin’dwiththeaction，commonsenserequiresitshou’dbeesteem’dacause，andbebook’duponasaninstanceofthatnecessity，whichIwou’destablish。
Thisreasoningisequallysolid，whenapply’dtodivinelaws，sofarasthedeityisconsider’dasalegislator，andissuppos’dtoinflictpunishmentandbestowrewardswithadesigntoproduceobedience。ButIalsomaintain，thatevenwhereheactsnotinhismagisterialcapacity，butisregardedastheavengerofcrimesmerelyonaccountoftheirodiousnessanddeformity，notonly`tisimpossible，withoutthenecessaryconnexionofcauseandeffectinhumanactions，thatpunishmentscou’dbeinflictedcompatiblewithjusticeandmoralequity；butalsothatitcou’deverenterintothethoughtsofanyreasonablebeingtoinflictthem。Theconstantanduniversalobjectofhatredorangerisapersonorcreatureendow’dwiththoughtandconsciousness；andwhenanycriminalorinjuriousactionsexcitethatpassion，`tisonlybytheirrelationtothepersonorconnexionwithhim。Butaccordingtothedoctrineoflibertyorchance，thisconnexionisreduc’dtonothing，noraremenmoreaccountableforthoseactions，whicharedesign’dandpremeditated，thanforsuchasarethemostcasualandaccidental。Actionsarebytheirverynaturetemporaryandperishing；andwheretheyproceednotfromsomecauseinthecharactersanddispositionoftheperson，whoperform’dthem，theyinfixnotthemselvesuponhim，andcanneitherredoundtohishonour，ifgood，norinfamy，ifevil。Theactionitselfmaybeblameable；itmaybecontrarytoalltherulesofmoralityandreligion:Butthepersonisnotresponsibleforit；andasitproceededfromnothinginhim，thatisdurableorconstant，andleavesnothingofthatnaturebehindit，`tisimpossiblehecan，uponitsaccount，becometheobjectofpunishmentorvengeance。Accordingtothehypothesisofliberty，therefore，amanisaspureanduntainted，afterhavingcommittedthemosthorridcrimes，asatthefirstmomentofhisbirth，norishischaracteranywayconcern’dinhisactions；sincetheyarenotderiv’dfromit，andthewickednessoftheonecanneverbeus’dasaproofofthedepravityoftheother。Tisonlyupontheprinciplesofnecessity，thatapersonacquiresanymeritordemeritfromhisactions，howeverthecommonopinionmayinclinetothecontrary。
Butsoinconsistentaremenwiththemselves，thattho’theyoftenassert，thatnecessityutterlydestroysallmeritanddemeriteithertowardsmankindorsuperiorpowers，yettheycontinuestilltoreasonupontheseveryprinciplesofnecessityinalltheirjudgmentsconcerningthismatter。Menarenotblam’dforsuchevilactionsastheyperformignorantlyandcasually，whatevermaybetheirconsequences。Why？butbecausethecausesoftheseactionsareonlymomentary，andterminateinthemalone。Menarelessblam’dforsuchevilactions，astheyperformhastilyandunpremeditately，thanforsuchasproceedfromthoughtanddeliberation。Forwhatreason？butbecauseahastytemper，tho’aconstantcauseinthemind，operatesonlybyintervals，andinfectsnotthewholecharacter。Again，repentancewipesoffeverycrime，especiallyifattendedwithanevidentreformationoflifeandmanners。Howisthistobeaccountedfor？Butbyassertingthatactionsrenderapersoncriminal，merelyastheyareproofsofcriminalpassionsorprinciplesinthemind；andwhenbyanyalterationoftheseprinciplestheyceasetobejustproofs，theylikewiseceasetobecriminal。Butaccordingtothedoctrineoflibertyorchancetheyneverwerejustproofs，andconsequentlyneverwerecriminal。
HerethenIturntomyadversary，anddesirehimtofreehisownsystemfromtheseodiousconsequencesbeforehechargethemuponothers。Orifheratherchuses，thatthisquestionshou’dbedecidedbyfairargumentsbeforephilosophers，thanbydeclamationsbeforethepeople，lethimreturntowhatIhaveadvanc’dtoprovethatlibertyandchancearesynonimous；andconcerningthenatureofmoralevidenceandtheregularityofhumanactions。Uponareviewofthesereasonings，Icannotdoubtofanentirevictory；andthereforehavingprov’d，thatallactionsofthewillhaveparticularcauses，Iproceedtoexplainwhatthesecausesare，andhowtheyoperate。
OftheinfluencingmotivesofthewillNothingismoreusualinphilosophy，andevenincommonlife，thantotalkofthecombatofpassionandreason，togivethepreferencetoreason，andassertthatmenareonlysofarvirtuousastheyconformthemselvestoitsdictates。Everyrationalcreature，`tissaid，isoblig’dtoregulatehisactionsbyreason；andifanyothermotiveorprinciplechallengethedirectionofhisconduct，heoughttoopposeit，tillitbeentirelysubdu’d，oratleastbroughttoaconformitywiththatsuperiorprinciple。Onthismethodofthinkingthegreatestpartofmoralphilosophy，antientandmodern，seemstobefounded；noristhereanamplerfield，aswellformetaphysicalarguments，aspopulardeclamations，thanthissuppos’dpre-eminenceofreasonabovepassion。Theeternity，invariableness，anddivineoriginoftheformerhavebeendisplay’dtothebestadvantage:Theblindness，unconstancy，anddeceitfulnessofthelatterhavebeenasstronglyinsistedon。Inordertoshewthefallacyofallthisphilosophy，Ishallendeavourtoprovefirst，thatreasonalonecanneverbeamotivetoanyactionofthewill；andsecondly，thatitcanneveropposepassioninthedirectionofthewill。
Theunderstandingexertsitselfaftertwodifferentways，asitjudgesfromdemonstrationorprobability；asitregardstheabstractrelationsofourideas，orthoserelationsofobjects，ofwhichexperienceonlygivesusinformation。Ibelieveitscarcewillbeasserted，thatthefirstspeciesofreasoningaloneiseverthecauseofanyaction。Asitsproperprovinceistheworldofideas，andasthewillalwaysplacesusinthatofrealities，demonstrationandvolitionseem，uponthataccount，tobetotallyremov’d，fromeachother。Mathematics，indeed，areusefulinallmechanicaloperations，andarithmeticinalmosteveryartandprofession:But`tisnotofthemselvestheyhaveanyinfluence:Mechanicsaretheartofregulatingthemotionsofbodiestosomedesign’dendorpurpose；andthereasonwhyweemployarithmeticinfixingtheproportionsofnumbers，isonlythatwemaydiscovertheproportionsoftheirinfluenceandoperation。Amerchantisdesirousofknowingthesumtotalofhisaccountswithanyperson:Why？butthathemaylearnwhatsumwillhavethesameeffectsinpayinghisdebt，andgoingtomarket，asalltheparticulararticlestakentogether。Abstractordemonstrativereasoning，therefore，neverinfluencesanyofouractions，butonlyasitdirectsourjudgmentconcerningcausesandeffects；whichleadsustothesecondoperationoftheunderstanding。
Tisobvious，thatwhenwehavetheprospectofpainorpleasurefromanyobject，wefeelaconsequentemotionofaversionorpropensity，andarecarry’dtoavoidorembracewhatwillgiveusthisuneasinesorsatisfaction。`Tisalsoobvious，thatthisemotionrestsnothere，butmakinguscastourviewoneveryside，comprehendswhateverobjectsareconnectedwithitsoriginalonebytherelationofcauseandeffect。Herethenreasoningtakesplacetodiscoverthisrelation；andaccordingasourreasoningvaries，ouractionsreceiveasubsequentvariation。But`tisevidentinthiscasethattheimpulsearisesnotfromreason，butisonlydirectedbyit。Tisfromtheprospectofpainorpleasurethattheaversionorpropensityarisestowardsanyobject:Andtheseemotionsextendthemselvestothecausesandeffectsofthatobject，astheyarepointedouttousbyreasonandexperience。Itcanneverintheleastconcernustoknow，thatsuchobjectsarecauses，andsuchotherseffects，ifboththecausesandeffectsbeindifferenttous。Wheretheobjectsthemselvesdonotaffectus，theirconnexioncannevergivethemanyinfluence；and`tisplain，thatasreasonisnothingbutthediscoveryofthisconnexion，itcannotbebyitsmeansthattheobjectsareabletoaffectus。
Sincereasonalonecanneverproduceanyaction，orgiverisetovolition，Iinfer，thatthesamefacultyisasincapableofpreventingvolition，orofdisputingthepreferencewithanypassionoremotion。Thisconsequenceisnecessary。`Tisimpossiblereasoncou’dhavethelattereffectofpreventingvolition，butbygivinganimpulseinacontrarydirectiontoourpassion；andthatimpulse，haditoperatedalone，wou’dhavebeenabletoproducevolition。Nothingcanopposeorretardtheimpulseofpassion，butacontraryimpulse；andifthiscontraryimpulseeverarisesfromreason，thatlatterfacultymusthaveanoriginalinfluenceonthewill，andmustbeabletocause，aswellashinderanyactofvolition。Butifreasonhasnooriginalinfluence，`tisimpossibleitcanwithstandanyprinciple，whichhassuchanefficacy，oreverkeepthemindinsuspenceamoment。Thusitappears，thattheprinciple，whichopposesourpassion，cannotbethesamewithreason，andisonlycall’dsoinanimpropersense。Wespeaknotstrictlyandphilosophicallywhenwetalkofthecombatofpassionandofreason。Reasonis，andoughtonlytobetheslaveofthepassions，andcanneverpretendtoanyotherofficethantoserveandobeythem。Asthisopinionmayappearsomewhatextraordinary，itmaynotbeimpropertoconfirmitbysomeotherconsiderations。
Apassionisanoriginalexistence，or，ifyouwill，modificationofexistence，andcontainsnotanyrepresentativequality，whichrendersitacopyofanyotherexistenceormodification。WhenIamangry，Iamactuallypossestwiththepassion，andinthatemotionhavenomoreareferencetoanyotherobject，thanwhenIamthirsty，orsick，ormorethanfivefoothigh。`Tisimpossible，therefore，thatthispassioncanbeopposedby，orbecontradictorytotruthandreason；sincethiscontradictionconsistsinthedisagreementofideas，consider’dascopies，withthoseobjects，whichtheyrepresentWhatmayatfirstoccuronthishead，is，thatasnothingcanbecontrarytotruthorreason，exceptwhathasareferencetoit，andasthejudgmentsofourunderstandingonlyhavethisreference，itmustfollow，thatpassionscanbecontrarytoreasononlysofarastheyareaccompany’dwithsomejudgmentoropinion。Accordingtothisprinciple，whichissoobviousandnatural，`tisonlyintwosenses，thatanyaffectioncanbecall’dunreasonable。First，Whenapassion，suchashopeorfear，grieforjoy，despairorsecurity，isfoundedonthesuppositionortheexistenceofobjects，whichreallydonotexist。Secondly，Wheninexertinganypassioninaction，wechusemeansinsufficientforthedesign’dend，anddeceiveourselvesinourjudgmentofcausesandeffects。Whereapassionisneitherfoundedonfalsesuppositions，norchusesmeansinsufficientfortheend，theunderstandingcanneitherjustifynorcondemnit。`Tisnotcontrarytoreasontopreferthedestructionofthewholeworldtothescratchingofmyfinger。`Tisnotcontrarytoreasonformetochusemytotalruin，topreventtheleastuneasinessofanIndianorpersonwhollyunknowntome。`Tisaslittlecontrarytoreasontopreferevenmyownacknowledge’dlessergoodtomygreater，andhaveamoreardentaffectionfortheformerthanthelatter。Atrivialgoodmay，fromcertaincircumstances，produceadesiresuperiortowhatarisesfromthegreatestandmostvaluableenjoyment；noristhereanythingmoreextraordinaryinthis，thaninmechanicstoseeonepoundweightraiseupahundredbytheadvantageofitssituation。Inshort，apassionmustbeaccompany’dwithsomefalsejudgment。inordertoitsbeingunreasonable；andeventhen`tisnotthepassion，properlyspeaking，whichisunreasonable，butthejudgment。
Theconsequencesareevident。Sinceapassioncannever，inanysense，becall’dunreasonable，butwhenfoundedonafalsesupposition。orwhenitchusesmeansinsufficientforthedesign’dend，`tisimpossible，thatreasonandpassioncaneveropposeeachother，ordisputeforthegovernmentofthewillandactions。Themomentweperceivethefalshoodofanysupposition，ortheinsufficiencyofanymeansourpassionsyieldtoourreasonwithoutanyopposition。Imaydesireanyfruitasofanexcellentrelish；butwheneveryouconvincemeofmymistake，mylongingceases。Imaywilltheperformanceofcertainactionsasmeansofobtaininganydesir’dgood；butasmywillingoftheseactionsisonlysecondary，andfoundedonthesupposition，thattheyarecausesofthepropos’deffect；assoonasIdiscoverthefalshoodofthatsupposition，theymustbecomeindifferenttome。
`Tisnaturalforone，thatdoesnotexamineobjectswithastrictphilosophiceye，toimagine，thatthoseactionsofthemindareentirelythesame，whichproducenotadifferentsensation，andarenotimmediatelydistinguishabletothefeelingandperception。Reason，forinstance，exertsitselfwithoutproducinganysensibleemotion；andexceptinthemoresublimedisquisitionsofphilosophy，orinthefrivoloussubtiltiesoftheschool，scarceeverconveysanypleasureoruneasiness。Henceitproceeds，thateveryactionofthemind，whichoperateswiththesamecalmnessandtranquillity，isconfoundedwithreasonbyallthose，whojudgeofthingsfromthefirstviewandappearance。Now`tiscertain，therearecertaincalmdesiresandtendencies，which，tho’theyberealpassions，producelittleemotioninthemind，andaremoreknownbytheireffectsthanbytheimmediatefeelingorsensation。Thesedesiresareoftwokinds；eithercertaininstinctsoriginallyimplantedinournatures，suchasbenevolenceandresentment，theloveoflife，andkindnesstochildren；orthegeneralappetitetogood，andaversiontoevil，consider’dmerelyassuch。Whenanyofthesepassionsarecalm，andcausenodisorderinthesoul，theyareveryreadilytakenforthedeterminationsofreason，andaresuppos’dtoproceedfromthesamefaculty，withthat，whichjudgesoftruthandfalshood。Theirnatureandprincipleshavebeensuppos’dthesame，becausetheirsensationsarenotevidentlydifferent。
Besidethesecalmpassions，whichoftendeterminethewill，therearecertainviolentemotionsofthesamekind，whichhavelikewiseagreatinfluenceonthatfaculty。WhenIreceiveanyinjuryfromanother，Ioftenfeelaviolentpassionofresentment，whichmakesmedesirehisevilandpunishment，independentofallconsiderationsofpleasureandadvantagetomyself。WhenIamimmediatelythreaten’dwithanygrievousill，myfears，apprehensions，andaversionsrisetoagreatheight，andproduceasensibleemotion。
Thecommonerrorofmetaphysicianshaslaininascribingthedirectionofthewillentirelytooneoftheseprinciples，andsupposingtheothertohavenoinfluence。Menoftenactknowinglyagainsttheirinterest:Forwhichreasontheviewofthegreatestpossiblegooddoesnotalwaysinfluencethem。Menoftencounter-actaviolentpassioninprosecutionoftheirinterestsanddesigns:`Tisnotthereforethepresentuneasinessalone，whichdeterminesthem。Ingeneralwemayobserve，thatboththeseprinciplesoperateonthewill；andwheretheyarecontrary，thateitherofthemprevails，accordingtothegeneralcharacterorpresentdispositionoftheperson。Whatwecallstrengthofmind，impliestheprevalenceofthecalmpassionsabovetheviolent；tho’wemayeasilyobserve，thereisnomansoconstantlypossess’dofthisvirtue，asneveronanyoccasiontoyieldtothesollicitationsofpassionanddesire。Fromthesevariationsoftemperproceedsthegreatdifficultyofdecidingconcerningtheactionsandresolutionsofmen，wherethereisanycontrarietyofmotivesandpassions。
SECT。IVOfthecausesoftheviolentpassionsThereisnot-inphilosophyasubjectofmorenicespeculationthanthisofthedifferentcausesandeffectsofthecalmandviolentpassions。`Tisevidentpassionsinfluencenotthewillinproportiontotheirviolence，orthedisordertheyoccasioninthetemper；butonthecontrary，thatwhenapassionhasoncebecomeasettledprincipleofaction，andisthepredominantinclinationofthesoul，itcommonlyproducesnolongeranysensibleagitation。Asrepeatedcustomanditsownforcehavemadeeverythingyieldtoit，itdirectstheactionsandconductwithoutthatoppositionandemotion，whichsonaturallyattendeverymomentarygustofpassion。Wemust，therefore，distinguishbetwixtacalmandaweakpassion；betwixtaviolentandastrongone。Butnotwithstandingthis，`tiecertain，thatwhenwewou’dgovernaman，andpushhimtoanyaction，`twillcommonlybebetterpolicytoworkupontheviolentthanthecalmpassions，andrathertakehimbyhisinclination，thanwhatisvulgarlycall’dhisreason。Weoughttoplacetheobjectinsuchparticularsituationsasarepropertoencreasetheviolenceofthepassion。Forwemayobserve，thatalldependsuponthesituationoftheobject，andthatavariationinthisparticularwillbeabletochangethecalmandtheviolentpassionsintoeachother。Boththesekindsofpassionspursuegood，andavoidevil；andbothofthemareencreas’dordiminish’dbytheencreaseordiminutionofthegoodorevil。Buthereinliesthedifferencebetwixtthem:Thesamegood，whennear，willcauseaviolentpassion，which，whenremote，producesonlyacalmone。Asthissubjectbelongsveryproperlytothepresentquestionconcerningthewill，weshallhereexamineittothebottom，andshallconsidersomeofthosecircumstancesandsituationsofobjects，whichrenderapassioneithercalmorviolent。
`Tisaremarkablepropertyofhumannature，thatanyemotion，whichattendsapassion，iseasilyconvertedintoit，tho’intheirnaturestheybeoriginallydifferentfrom，andevencontrarytoeachother。`Tistrue；inordertomakeaperfectunionamongpassions，thereisalwaysrequir’dadoublerelationofimpressionsandideas；norisonerelationsufficientforthatpurpose。Buttho’thisbeconfirmedbyundoubtedexperience，wemustunderstanditwithitsproperlimitations，andmustregardthedoublerelation，asrequisiteonlytomakeonepassionproduceanother。Whentwopassionsarealreadyproduc’dbytheirseparatecauses，andarebothpresentinthemind，theyreadilymingleandunite，tho’theyhavebutonerelation，andsometimeswithoutany。Thepredominantpassionswallowsuptheinferior，andconvertsitintoitself。Thespirits，whenonceexcited，easilyreceiveachangeintheirdirection；and`tienaturaltoimaginethischangewillcomefromtheprevailingaffection。Theconnexionisinmanyrespectscloserbetwixtanytwopassions，thanbetwixtanypassionandindifference。
Whenapersonisonceheartilyinlove，thelittlefaultsandcapricesofhismistress，thejealousiesandquarrels，towhichthatcommerceissosubject；howeverunpleasantandrelatedtoangerandhatred；areyetfoundtogiveadditionalforcetotheprevailingpassion。`Tisacommonartificeofpoliticians，whentheywou’daffectanypersonverymuchbyamatteroffact，ofwhichtheyintendtoinformhim，firsttoexcitehiscuriosity；delayaslongaspossiblethesatisfyingit；andbythatmeansraisehisanxietyandimpatiencetotheutmost，beforetheygivehimafullinsightintothebusiness。Theyknowthathiscuriositywillprecipitatehimintothepassiontheydesigntoraise，andassisttheobjectinitsinfluenceonthemind。Asoldieradvancingtothebattle，isnaturallyinspir’dwithcourageandconfidence，whenhethinksonhisfriendsandfellow-soldiers；andisstruckwithfearandterror，whenhereflectsontheenemy。Whatevernewemotion，therefore，proceedsfromtheformernaturallyencreasesthecourage；asthesameemotion，proceedingfromthelatter，augmentsthefear；bytherelationofideas，andtheconversionoftheinferioremotionintothepredominant。Henceitisthatinmartialdiscipline，theuniformityandlustreofourhabit，theregularityofourfiguresandmotions，withallthepompandmajestyofwar，encourageourselvesandallies；whilethesameobjectsintheenemystriketerrorintous，tho’agreeableandbeautifulinthemselves。
Sincepassions，howeverindependent，arenaturallytransfus’dintoeachother，iftheyarebothpresentatthesametime；itfollows，thatwhengoodorevilisplacedinsuchasituation，astocauseanyparticularemotion，besideitsdirectpassionofdesireoraversion，thatlatterpassionmustacquirenewforceandviolence。
Thishappens，amongothercases，wheneveranyobjectexcitescontrarypassions。For`tisobservablethatanoppositionofpassionscommonlycausesanewemotioninthespirits，andproducesmoredisorder，thantheconcurrenceofanytwoaffectionsofequalforce。Thisnewemotioniseasilyconvertedintothepredominantpassion，andencreasesitsviolence，beyondthepitchitwou’dhavearriv’dathaditmetwithnoopposition。Hencewenaturallydesirewhatisforbid，andtakeapleasureinperformingactions，merelybecausetheyareunlawful。Thenotionofduty，whenoppositetothepassions，isseldomabletoovercomethem；andwhenitfailsofthateffect，isaptrathertoencreasethem，byproducinganoppositioninourmotivesandprinciples。Thesameeffectfollowswhethertheoppositionarisesfrominternalmotivesorexternalobstacles。Thepassioncommonlyacquiresnewforceandviolenceinbothcases。
Theefforts，whichthemindmakestosurmounttheobstacle，excitethespiritsandinliventhepassion。
Uncertaintyhasthesameinfluenceasopposition。Theagitationofthethought；thequickturnsitmakesfromoneviewtoanother；thevarietyofpassions，whichsucceedeachother，accordingtothedifferentviews；Alltheseproduceanagitationinthemind，andtransfusethemselvesintothepredominantpassion。
Thereisnotinmyopinionanyothernaturalcause，whysecuritydiminishesthepassions，thanbecauseitremovesthatuncertainty，whichencreasesthem。Themind，whenlefttoitself，immediatelylanguishes；andinordertopreserveitsardour，mustbeeverymomentsupportedbyanewflowofpassion。Forthesamereason，despair，tho’contrarytosecurity，hasalikeinfluence。
`Tiscertainnothingmorepowerfullyanimatesanyaffection，thantoconcealsomepartofitsobjectbythrowingitintoakindofshade，whichatthesametimethatitchewsenoughtopre-possessusinfavouroftheobject，leavesstillsomeworkfortheimagination。Besidesthatobscurityisalwaysattendedwithakindofuncertainty；theeffort，whichthefancymakestocompleattheidea，rouzesthespirits，andgivesanadditionalforcetothepassion。
Asdespairandsecurity，tho’contrarytoeachother，producethesameeffects；soabsenceisobserv’dtohavecontraryeffects，andindifferentcircumstanceseitherencreasesordiminishesouraffections。TheDucdeLaRochefoucaulthasverywellobserv’d，thatabsencedestroysweakpassions，butencreasesstrong；asthewindextinguishesacandle，butblowsupafire。Longabsencenaturallyweakensouridea，anddiminishesthepassion:Butwheretheideaissostrongandlivelyastosupportitself，theuneasiness，arisingfromabsence，encreasesthepassionandgivesitnewforceandviolence。
OftheeffectsofcustomButnothinghasagreatereffectbothtoencreaseanddiminishourpassions，toconvertpleasureintopain，andpainintopleasure，thancustomandrepetition。Customhastwooriginaleffectsuponthemind，inbestowingafacilityintheperformanceofanyactionortheconceptionofanyobject；andafterwardsatendencyorinclinationtowardsit；andfromthesewemayaccountforallitsothereffects，howeverextraordinary。
Whenthesoulappliesitselftotheperformanceofanyaction，ortheconceptionofanyobject，towhichitisnotaccustom’d，thereisacertainunpliablenessinthefaculties，andadifficultyofthespirit’smovingintheirnewdirection。Asthisdifficultyexcitesthespirits，`tisthesourceofwonder，surprize，andofalltheemotions，whicharisefromnovelty；andisinitselfveryagreeable，likeeverything，whichinlivensthemindtoamoderatedegree。Buttho’surprizebeagreeableinitself，yetasitputsthespiritsinagitation，itnotonlyaugmentsouragreeableaffections，butalsoourpainful，accordingtotheforegoingprinciple，thateveryemotion，whichprecedesorattendsapassion，iseasilyconvertedintoit。Henceeverything，thatisnew，ismostaffecting，andgivesuseithermorepleasureorpain，thanwhat，strictlyspeaking，naturallybelongstoit。Whenitoftenreturnsuponus，thenoveltywearsoff；thepassionssubside；thehurryofthespiritsisover；andwesurveytheobjectswithgreatertranquillity。
Bydegreestherepetitionproducesafacilityofthehumanmind，andaninfalliblesourceofpleasure，wherethefacilitygoesnotbeyondacertaindegree。Andhere`tisremarkablethatthepleasure，whicharisesfromamoderatefacility，hasnotthesametendencywiththatwhicharisesfromnovelty，toaugmentthepainful，aswellastheagreeableaffections。Thepleasureoffacilitydoesnotsomuchconsistinanyfermentofthespirits，asintheirorderlymotion；whichwillsometimesbesopowerfulaseventoconvertpainintopleasure，andgiveusarelishintimewhatatfirstwasmostharshanddisagreeable。
Butagain，asfacilityconvertspainintopleasure，soitoftenconvertspleasureintopain，whenitistoogreat，andrenderstheactionsofthemindsofaintandlanguid，thattheyarenolongerabletointerestandsupportit。Andindeed，scarceanyotherobjectsbecomedisagreeablethro’custom；butsuchasarenaturallyattendedwithsomeemotionoraffection，whichisdestroy’dbythetoofrequentrepetition。Onecanconsidertheclouds，andheavens，andtrees，andstones，howeverfrequentlyrepeated，withouteverfeelinganyaversion。Butwhenthefairsex，ormusic，orgoodcheer，oranything，thatnaturallyoughttobeagreeable，becomesindifferent，iteasilyproducestheoppositeaffection。
Butcustomnotonlygivesafacilitytoperformanyaction，butlikewiseaninclinationandtendencytowardsit，whereitisnotentirelydisagreeable，andcanneverbetheobjectofinclination。Andthisisthereasonwhycustomencreasesallactivehabits，butdiminishespassive，accordingtotheobservationofalateeminentphilosopher。Thefacilitytakesofffromtheforceofthepassivehabitsbyrenderingthemotionofthespiritsfaintandlanguid。Butasintheactive，thespiritsaresufficientlysupportedofthemselves，thetendencyofthemindgivesthemnewforce，andbendsthemmorestronglytotheaction。
SECT。VI
Oftheinfluenceoftheimaginationonthepassions`Tisremarkable，thattheimaginationandaffectionshavecloseuniontogether，andthatnothing，whichaffectstheformer，canbeentirelyindifferenttothelatter。Whereverourideasofgoodorevilacquireanewvivacity，thepassionsbecomemoreviolent；andkeeppacewiththeimaginationinallitsvariations。Whetherthisproceedsfromtheprincipleabove-mention’d，thatanyattendantemotioniseasilyconvertedintothepredominant，Ishallnotdetermine。`Tissufficientformypresentpurpose，thatwehavemanyinstancestoconfirmthisinfluenceoftheimaginationuponthepassions。
Anypleasure，withwhichweareacquainted，affectsusmorethananyother，whichweowntobesuperior，butofwhosenaturewearewhollyignorant。Oftheonewecanformaparticularanddeterminateidea:Theotherweconceiveunderthegeneralnotionofpleasure；and`tiscertain，thatthemoregeneralanduniversalanyofourideasare，thelessinfluencetheyhaveupontheimagination。Ageneralidea，tho’itbenothingbutaparticularoneconsider’dinacertainview，iscommonlymoreobscure；andthatbecausenoparticularidea，bywhichwerepresentageneralone，iseverfix’dordeterminate，butmayeasilybechang’dforotherparticularones，whichwillserveequallyintherepresentation。
ThereisanotedpassageinthehistoryofGreece，whichmayserveforourpresentpurpose。ThemistoclestoldtheAthenians，thathehadform’dadesign，whichwou’dbehighlyusefultothepublic，butwhich`twasimpossibleforhimtocommunicatetothemwithoutruiningtheexecution，sinceitssuccessdependedentirelyonthesecrecywithwhichitshou’dbeconducted。TheAthenians，insteadofgrantinghimfullpowertoactashethoughtfitting，order’dhimtocommunicatehisdesigntoAristides，inwhoseprudencetheyhadanentireconfidence，andwhoseopiniontheywereresolv’dblindlytosubmitto。ThedesignofThemistocleswassecretlytosetfiretothefleetofalltheGreciancommonwealths，whichwasassembledinaneighbouringport，andwhichbeingoncedestroy’dwou’dgivetheAthenianstheempireoftheseawithoutanyrivaLAristidesreturn’dtotheassembly，andtoldthem，thatnothingcou’dbemoreadvantageousthanthedesignofThemistoclesbutatthesametimethatnothingcou’dbemoreunjust:Uponwhichthepeopleunanimouslyrejectedtheproject。
Alatecelebrated(14)historianadmiresthispassageofantienthistory，asoneofthemostsingularthatisanywheretobemet。
`Here，’sayshe，`theyarenotphilosophers，towhom`tieeasyintheirschoolstoestablishthefinestmaximsandmostsublimerulesofmorality，whodecidethatinterestoughtnevertoprevailabovejustice。`Tisawholepeopleinterestedintheproposal。whichismadetothem，whoconsideritasofimportancetothepublicgood，andwhonotwithstandingrejectitunanimously，andwithouthesitation，merelybecauseitiscontrarytojustice。’
FormypartIseenothingsoextraordinaryinthisproceedingoftheAthenians。Thesamereasons，whichrenderitsoeasyforphilosopherstoestablishthesesublimemaxims，tend，inpart，todiminishthemeritofsuchaconductinthatpeople。Philosophersneverballancebetwixtprofitandhonesty，becausetheirdecisionsaregeneral，andneithertheirpassionsnorimaginationsareinterestedintheobjects。Andtho’inthepresentcasetheadvantagewasimmediatetotheAthenians，yetasitwasknownonlyunderthegeneralnotionofadvantage，withoutbeingconceiv’dbyanyparticularidea，itmusthavehadalessconsiderableinfluenceontheirimaginations，andhavebeenalessviolenttemptation，thaniftheyhadbeenacquaintedwithallitscircumstances:Otherwise`tiedifficulttoconceive，thatawholepeople，unjustandviolentasmencommonlyare，shou’dsounanimouslyhaveadher’dtojustice，andrejectedanyconsiderableadvantage。
Anysatisfaction，whichwelatelyenjoy’d，andofwhichthememoryisfreshandrecent，operatesonthewillwithmoreviolence，thananotherofwhichthetracesaredecay’d，andalmostobliterated。Fromwhencedoesthisproceed，butthatthememoryinthefirstcaseassiststhefancy。andgivesanadditionalforceandvigourtoitsconceptions？Theimageofthepastpleasurebeingstrongandviolent，bestowsthesequalitiesontheideaofthefuturepleasure，whichisconnectedwithitbytherelationofresemblance。
Apleasure，whichissuitabletothewayoflife，inwhichweareengag’d，excitesmoreourdesiresandappetitesthananother，whichisforeigntoit。Thisphaenomenonmaybeexplain’dfromthesameprinciple。
Nothingismorecapableofinfusinganypassionintothemind，thaneloquence，bywhichobjectsarerepresentedintheirstrongestandmostlivelycolours。Wemayofourselvesacknowledge，thatsuchanobjectisvaluable，andsuchanotherodious；but`tillanoratorexcitestheimagination，andgivesforcetotheseideas，theymayhavebutafeebleinfluenceeitheronthewillortheaffections。
Buteloquenceisnotalwaysnecessary。Thebareopinionofanother，especiallywheninforc’dwithpassion，willcauseanideaofgoodoreviltohaveaninfluenceuponus，whichwou’dotherwisehavebeenentirelyneglected。Thisproceedsfromtheprincipleofsympathyorcommunication；andsympathy，asIhavealreadyobserv’d，isnothingbuttheconversionofanideaintoanimpressionbytheforceofimagination。
`Tisremarkable，thatlivelypassionscommonlyattendalivelyimagination。Inthisrespect，aswellasothers，theforceofthepassiondependsasmuchonthetemperoftheperson，asthenatureorsituationoftheobject。
Ihavealreadyobserv’d，thatbeliefisnothingbutalivelyidearelatedtoapresentimpression。Thisvivacityisarequisitecircumstancetotheexcitingallourpassions，thecalmaswellastheviolent；norhasamerefictionoftheimaginationanyconsiderableinfluenceuponeitherofthem。`Tistooweaktotakeholdofthemind，orbeattendedwithemotion。
SECT。VIIOfcontiguityanddistanceinspaceandtimeThereisaneasyreason，whyeverythingcontiguoustous，eitherinspaceortime，shou’dbeconceiv’dwithapeculiarforceandvivacity，andexceleveryotherobject，initsinfluenceontheimagination。Ourselfisintimatelypresenttous，andwhateverisrelatedtoselfmustpartakeofthatquality。Butwhereanobjectissofarremov’dastohavelosttheadvantageofthisrelation，why，asitisfartherremov’d，itsideabecomesstillfainterandmoreobscure，wou’d，perhaps，requireamoreparticularexamination。
`Tisobvious，thattheimaginationcannevertotallyforgetthepointsofspaceandtime，inwhichweareexistent；butreceivessuchfrequentadvertisementsofthemfromthepassionsandsenses，thathoweveritmayturnitsattentiontoforeignandremoteobjects，itisnecessitatedeverymomenttoreflectonthepresent。`Ticalsoremarkable，thatintheconceptionofthoseobjects，whichweregardasrealandexistent，wetakethemintheirproperorderandsituation，andneverleapfromoneobjecttoanother，whichisdistantfromit，withoutrunningover，atleastinacursorymanner，allthoseobjects，whichareinterpos’dbetwixtthem。Whenwereflect，therefore，onanyobjectdistantfromourselves，weareoblig’dnotonlytoreachitatfirstbypassingthro’alltheintermediatespacebetwixtourselvesandtheobject，butalsotorenewourprogresseverymoment；beingeverymomentrecall’dtotheconsiderationofourselvesandourpresentsituation。`Ticeasilyconceiv’d，thatthisinterruptionmustweakentheideabybreakingtheactionofthemind，andhinderingtheconceptionfrombeingsointenseandcontinu’d，aswhenwereflectonanearerobject。Thefewerstepswemaketoarriveattheobject，andthesmoothertheroadis，thisdiminutionofvivacityislesssensiblyfelt，butstillmaybeobserv’dmoreorlessinproportiontothedegreesofdistanceanddifficulty。
Herethenwearetoconsidertwokindsofobjects，thecontiguousandremote；ofwhichtheformer，bymeansoftheirrelationtoourselves，approachanimpressioninforceandvivacity；thelatterbyreasonoftheinterruptioninourmannerofconceivingthem，appearinaweakerandmoreimperfectlight。Thisistheireffectontheimagination。Ifmyreasoningbejust，theymusthaveaproportionableeffectonthewillandpassions。Contiguousobjectsmusthaveaninfluencemuchsuperiortothedistantandremote。Accordinglywefindincommonlife，thatmenareprincipallyconcern’daboutthoseobjects，whicharenotmuchremov’deitherinspaceortime，enjoyingthepresent，andleavingwhatisafarofftothecareofchanceandfortune。Talktoamanofhisconditionthirtyyearshence，andhewillnotregardyou。Speakofwhatistohappentomorrow，andhewilllendyouattention。Thebreakingofamirrorgivesusmoreconcernwhenathome，thantheburningofahouse，whenabroad，andsomehundredleaguesdistant。
Butfarther；tho’distancebothinspaceandtimehasaconsiderableeffectontheimagination，andbythatmeansonthewillandpassions，yettheconsequenceofaremovalinspacearemuchinferiortothoseofaremovalintime。Twentyyearsarecertainlybutasmalldistanceoftimeincomparisonofwhathistoryandeventhememoryofsomemayinformthemof，andyetIdoubtifathousandleagues，oreventhegreatestdistanceofplacethisglobecanadmitof，willsoremarkablyweakenourideas，anddiminishourpassions。AWest-Indianmerchantwilltellyou，thatheisnotwithoutconcernaboutwhatpassesinJamaica；tho’fewextendtheirviewssofarintofuturity，astodreadveryremoteaccidents。
Thecauseofthisphaenomenonmustevidentlylieinthedifferentpropertiesofspaceandtime。Withouthavingrecoursetometaphysics，anyonemayeasilyobserve，thatspaceorextensionconsistsofanumberofco-existentpartsdispos’dinacertainorder，andcapableofbeingatoncepresenttothesightorfeeling。Onthecontrary，timeorsuccession，tho’itconsistslikewiseofparts，neverpresentstousmorethanoneatonce；norisitpossibleforanytwoofthemevertobeco-existent。Thesequalitiesoftheobjectshaveasuitableeffectontheimagination。Thepartsofextensionbeingsusceptibleofanuniontothesenses，acquireanunioninthefancy；andastheappearanceofonepartexcludesnotanother，thetransitionorpassageofthethoughtthro’thecontiguouspartsisbythatmeansrender’dmoresmoothandeasy。Ontheotherhand，theincompatibilityofthepartsoftimeintheirrealexistenceseparatesthemintheimagination，andmakesitmoredifficultforthatfacultytotraceanylongsuccessionorseriesofevents。Everypartmustappearsingleandalone，norcanregularlyhaveentranceintothefancywithoutbanishingwhatissuppos’dtohavebeenimmediatelyprecedent。Bythismeansanydistanceintimecausesagreaterinterruptioninthethoughtthananequaldistanceinspace，andconsequentlyweakensmoreconsiderablytheidea，andconsequentlythepassions；whichdependinagreatmeasure，ontheimagination，accordingtomysystem。
Thereisanotherphaenomenonofalikenaturewiththeforegoing，viz，thesuperioreffectsofthesamedistanceinfuturityabovethatinthepast。Thisdifferencewithrespecttothewilliseasilyaccountedfor。Asnoneofouractionscanalterthepast，`ticnotstrangeitshou’dneverdeterminethewill。Butwithrespecttothepassionsthequestionisyetentire，andwellworththeexamining。
Besidesthepropensitytoagradualprogressionthro’thepointsofspaceandtime，wehaveanotherpeculiarityinourmethodofthinking，whichconcursinproducingthisphaenomenon。Wealwaysfollowthesuccessionoftimeinplacingourideas，andfromtheconsiderationofanyobjectpassmoreeasilytothat，whichfollowsimmediatelyafterit，thantothatwhichwentbeforeit。Wemaylearnthis，amongotherinstances，fromtheorder，whichisalwaysobserv’dinhistoricalnarrations。Nothingbutanabsolutenecessitycanobligeanhistoriantobreaktheorderoftime，andinhisnarrationgivetheprecedencetoanevent，whichwasinrealityposteriortoanother。
Thiswilleasilybeapply’dtothequestioninhand，ifwereflectonwhatIhavebeforeobserv’d，thatthepresentsituationofthepersonisalwaysthatoftheimagination，andthat`ticfromthenceweproceedtotheconceptionofanydistantobject。Whentheobjectispast，theprogressionofthethoughtinpassingtoitfromthepresentiscontrarytonature，asproceedingfromonepointoftimetothatwhichispreceding，andfromthattoanotherpreceding，inoppositiontothenaturalcourseofthesuccession。Ontheotherhand，whenweturnourthoughttoafutureobject，ourfancyflowsalongthestreamoftime，andarrivesattheobjectbyanorder，whichseemsmostnatural，passingalwaysfromonepointoftimetothatwhichisimmediatelyposteriortoit。Thiseasyprogressionofideasfavourstheimagination，andmakesitconceiveitsobjectinastrongerandfullerlight，thanwhenwearecontinuallyoppos’dinourpassage，andareoblig’dtoovercomethedifficultiesarisingfromthenaturalpropensityofthefancy。Asmalldegreeofdistanceinthepasthas，therefore，agreatereffect，ininteruptingandweakeningtheconception，thanamuchgreaterinthefuture。Fromthiseffectofitontheimaginationisderiv’ditsinfluenceonthewillandpassions。
Thereisanothercause，whichbothcontributestothesameeffect，andproceedsfromthesamequalityofthefancy，bywhichwearedetermin’dtotracethesuccessionoftimebyasimilarsuccessionofideas。Whenfromthepresentinstantweconsidertwopointsoftimeequallydistantinthefutureandinthepast，`ticevident，that，abstractedlyconsider’d，theirrelationtothepresentisalmostequal。Forasthefuturewillsometimebepresent，sothepastwasoncepresent。Ifwecou’d，therefore，removethisqualityoftheimagination，anequaldistanceinthepastandinthefuture，wou’dhaveasimilarinfluence。Noristhisonlytrue，whenthefancyremainsfix’d，andfromthepresentinstantsurveysthefutureandthepast；butalsowhenitchangesitssituation，andplacesusindifferentperiodsoftime。Forasontheonehand，insupposingourselvesexistentinapointoftimeinterpos’dbetwixtthepresentinstantandthefutureobject，wefindthefutureobjectapproachtous，andthepastretire，andbecomemoredistant:soontheotherhand，insupposingourselvesexistentinapointoftimeinterpos’dbetwixtthepresentandthepast，thepastapproachestous，andthefuturebecomesmoredistant。Butfromthepropertyofthefancyabove-mention’dweratherchusetofixourthoughtonthepointoftimeinterposedbetwixtthepresentandthefuture，thanonthatbetwixtthepresentandthepast。Weadvance，ratherthanretardourexistence；andfollowingwhatseemsthenaturalsuccessionoftime，proceedfrompasttopresent，andfrompresenttofuture。Bywhichmeansweconceivethefutureasflowingeverymomentnearerus，andthepastasretiring。Anequaldistance，therefore，inthepastandinthefuture，hasnotthesameeffectontheimagination；andthatbecauseweconsidertheoneascontinuallyencreasing，andtheotherascontinuallydiminishing。Thefancyanticipatesthecourseofthings，andsurveystheobjectinthatcondition，towhichittends，aswellasinthat，whichisregardedasthepresent。
Thesamesubjectcontinu’dThuswehaveaccountedforthreephaenomena，whichseemprettyremarkable。Whydistanceweakenstheconceptionandpassion:Whydistanceintimehasagreatereffectthanthatinspace:Andwhydistanceinpasttimehasstillagreatereffectthanthatinfuture。Wemustnowconsiderthreephaenomena，whichseemtobe，inamanner，thereverseofthese:Whyaverygreatdistanceencreasesouresteemandadmirationforanobject；Whysuchadistanceintimeencreasesitmorethanthatinspace:Andadistanceinpasttimemorethanthatinfuture。Thecuriousnessofthesubjectwill，Ihope，excusemydwellingonitforsometime。
Tobeginwiththefirstphaenomenon，whyagreatdistanceencreasesouresteemandadmirationforanobject；`ticevidentthatthemereviewandcontemplationofanygreatness，whethersuccessiveorextended，enlargesthesoul，andgiveitasensibledelightandpleasure。Awideplain，theocean，eternity，asuccessionofseveralages；alltheseareentertainingobjects，andexceleverything，howeverbeautiful，whichaccompaniesnotitsbeautywithasuitablegreatness。Nowwhenanyverydistantobjectispresentedtotheimagination，wenaturallyreflectontheinterpos’ddistance，andbythatmeans，conceivingsomethinggreatandmagnificent，receivetheusualsatisfaction。Butasthefancypasseseasilyfromoneideatoanotherrelatedtoit，`andtransportstothesecondallthepassionsexcitedbythefirst，theadmiration，whichisdirectedtothedistance，naturallydiffusesitselfoverthedistantobject。Accordinglywefind，that`tisnotnecessarytheobjectshou’dbeactuallydistantfromus，inordertocauseouradmiration；butthat`tissufficient，if，bythenaturalassociationofideas，itconveysourviewtoanyconsiderabledistance。Agreattraveller，tho’inthesamechamber，willpassforaveryextraordinaryperson；asaGreekmedal，eveninourcabinet，isalwaysesteem’davaluablecuriosity。Heretheobject，byanaturaltransition，conveysourviewstothedistance；andtheadmiration，whicharisesfromthatdistance，byanothernaturaltransition，returnsbacktotheobject。
Buttho’everygreatdistanceproducesanadmirationforthedistantobject，adistanceintimehasamoreconsiderableeffectthanthatinspace。Antientbustsandinscriptionsaremorevalu’dthanJapantables:AndnottomentiontheGreeksandRomans，`tiscertainweregardwithmorevenerationtheoldChaldeansandEgyptians，thanthemodemChineseandPersians，andbestowmorefruitlesspainstodearupthehistoryandchronologyoftheformer，thanitwou’dcostustomakeavoyage，andbecertainlyinform’dofthecharacter，learningandgovernmentofthelatter。Ishallbeoblig’dtomakeadigressioninordertoexplainthisphaenomenon。
`Tisaqualityveryobservableinhumannature，thatanyopposition，whichdoesnotentirelydiscourageandintimidateus，hasratheracontraryeffect，andinspiresuswithamorethanordinarygrandeurandmagnanimity。Incollectingourforcetoovercometheopposition，weinvigoratethesoul，andgiveitanelevationwithwhichotherwiseitwou’dneverhavebeenacquainted。Compliance，byrenderingourstrengthuseless，makesusinsensibleofit:butoppositionawakensandemploysit。
Thisisalsotrueintheuniverse。Oppositionnotonlyenlargesthesoul；butthesoul，whenfullofcourageandmagnanimity，inamannerseeksopposition。
SpumantemquedaripecorainterinertiavotisOptataprum，autfulvumdescenderemonteleonem。
[And，amongthetamerbeasts，[he]longstobegranted，inanswertohisprayers，aslaveringboar，ortohaveatawnylioncomedownfromthemountain。]
Whateversupportsandfillsthepassionsisagreeabletous；asonthecontrary，whatweakensandinfeeblesthemisuneasy。Asoppositionhasthefirsteffect，andfacilitythesecond，nowonderthemind，incertaindispositions，desirestheformer，andisaversetothelatter。
Theseprincipleshaveaneffectontheimaginationaswellasonthepassions。Tobeconvinc’dofthisweneedonlyconsidertheinfluenceofheightsanddepthsonthatfaculty。Anygreatelevationofplacecommunicatesakindofprideorsublimityofimagination，andgivesafancy’dsuperiorityoverthosethatliebelow；and，viceversa，asublimeandstrongimaginationconveystheideaofascentandelevation。Henceitproceeds，thatweassociate，inamanner，theideaofwhateverisgoodwiththatofheight，andevilwithlow。ness。Heavenissuppos’dtobeabove，andhellbelow。Anoblegeniusiscall’danelevateandsublimeone。Atqueudamspernithumumfugientepenna。[Spurnsthedanksoilinwingedflight。]Onthecontrary，avulgarandtrivialconceptionisstil’dindifferentlylowormean。Prosperityisdenominatedascent，andadversitydescent。Kingsandprincesaresuppos’dtobeplac’datthetopofhumanaffairs；aspeasantsandday-labourersaresaidtobeintheloweststations。Thesemethodsofthinking，andofexpressingourselves，arenotofsolittleconsequenceastheymayappearatfirstsight。
Tisevidenttocommonsense，aswellasphilosophy，thatthereisnonaturalnoressentialdifferencebetwixthighandlow，andthatthisdistinctionarisesonlyfromthegravitationofmatter，whichproducesamotionfromtheonetotheother。Theverysamedirection，whichinthispartoftheglobeiscall’dascent，isdenominateddescentinourantipodes；whichcanproceedfromnothingbutthecontrarytendencyofbodies。Now`tiscertain，thatthetendencyofbodies，continuallyoperatinguponoursenses，mustproduce，fromcustom，aliketendencyinthefancy，andthatwhenweconsideranyobjectsituatedinanascent，theideaofitsweightgivesusapropensitytotransportitfromtheplace，inwhichitissituated，totheplaceimmediatelybelowit，andsoon，`tillwecometotheground，whichequallystopsthebodyandourimagination。Foralikereasonwefeeladifficultyinmounting，andpassnotwithoutakindofreluctancefromtheinferiortothatwhichissituatedaboveit；asifourideasacquir’dakindofgravityfromtheirobjects。Asaproofofthis，dowenotfind，thatthefacility，whichissomuchstudy’dinmusicandpoetry，iscall’dthefailorcadencyoftheharmonyorperiod；theideaoffacilitycommunicatingtousthatofdescent，inthesamemannerasdescentproducesafacility？
Sincetheimagination，therefore，inrunningfromlowtohigh，findsanoppositioninitsinternalqualitiesandprinciples，andsincethesoul，whenelevatedwithjoyandcourage，inamannerseeksopposition，andthrowsitselfwithalacrityintoanysceneofthoughtoraction，whereitscouragemeetswithmattertonourishandemployit；itfollows，thateverything，whichinvigoratesandinlivensthesoul，whetherbytouchingthepassionsorimagination。naturallyconveystothefancythisinclinationforascent，anddeterminesittorunagainstthenaturalstreamofitsthoughtsandconceptions。Thisaspiringprogressoftheimaginationsuitsthepresentdispositionofthemind；andthedifficulty，insteadofextinguishingitsvigourandalacrity，hasthecontraryaffect，ofsustainingandencreasingit。Virtue，genius，power，andrichesareforthisreasonassociatedwithheightandsublimity；aspoverty，slavery，andfollyareconjoin’dwithdescentandlowness。WerethecasethesamewithusasMiltonrepresentsittobewiththeangels，towhomdescentisadverse，andwhocannotsinkwithoutlabourandcompulsion，thisorderofthingswou’dbeentirelyinverted；asappearshence，thattheverynatureofascentanddescentisderiv’dfromthedifficultyandpropensity，andconsequentlyeveryoneoftheireffectsproceedsfromthatorigin。
Allthisiseasilyapply’dtothepresentquestion，whyaconsiderabledistanceintimeproducesagreatervenerationforthedistantobjectsthanalikeremovalinspace。Theimaginationmoveswithmoredifficultyinpassingfromoneportionoftimetoanother，thaninatransitionthro’thepartsofspace；andthatbecausespaceorextensionappearsunitedtooursenses，whiletimeorsuccessionisalwaysbrokenanddivided。Thisdifficulty，whenjoin’dwithasmalldistance，interruptsandweakensthefancy:Buthasacontraryeffectinagreatremoval。Themind，elevatedbythevastnessofitsobject，isstillfartherelevatedbythedifficultyoftheconception；andbeingoblig’deverymomenttorenewitseffortsinthetransitionfromonepartoftimetoanother，feelsamorevigorousandsublimedisposition，thaninatransitionthro’thepartsofspace，wheretheideasflowalongwitheasinessandfacility。Inthisdisposition，theimagination，passing，asisusual，fromtheconsiderationofthedistancetotheviewofthedistantobjects，givesusaproportionablevenerationforit；andthisisthereasonwhyalltherelictsofantiquityaresopreciousinoureyes，andappearmorevaluablethanwhatisbroughtevenfromtheremotestpartsoftheworld。
ThethirdphaenomenonIhaveremark’dwillbeafullconfirmationofthis。`Tisnoteveryremovalintime，whichhastheeffectofproducingvenerationandesteem。Wearenotapttoimagineourposteritywillexcelus，orequalourancestors。Thisphaenomenonisthemoreremarkable，becauseanydistanceinfuturityweakensnotourideassomuchasanequalremovalinthepast。Tho’aremovalinthepast，whenverygreat，encreasesourpassionsbeyondalikeremovalinthefuture，yetasmallremovalhasagreaterinfluenceindiminishingthem。
Inourcommonwayofthinkingweareplac’dinakindofmiddlestationbetwixtthepastandfuture；andasourimaginationfindsakindofdifficultyinrunningalongtheformer，andafacilityinfollowingthecourseofthelatter，thedifficultyconveysthenotionofascent，andthefacilityofthecontrary。Henceweimagineourancestorstobe，inamanner，mountedaboveus，andourposteritytoliebelowus。Ourfancyarrivesnotattheonewithouteffort，buteasilyreachestheother:Whicheffortweakenstheconception，wherethedistanceissmall；butenlargesandelevatestheimagination，whenattendedwithasuitableobject。Asontheotherhand，thefacilityassiststhefancyinasmallremoval，buttakesofffromitsforcewhenitcontemplatesanyconsiderabledistance。
Itmaynotbeimproper，beforeweleavethissubjectofthewill，toresume，inafewwords，allthathasbeensaidconcerningit，inordertosetthewholemoredistinctlybeforetheeyesofthereader。Whatwecommonlyunderstandbypassionisaviolentandsensibleemotionofmind，whenanygoodorevilispresented，oranyobject，which，bytheoriginalformationofourfaculties，isfittedtoexciteanappetite。Byreasonwemeanaffectionsoftheverysamekindwiththeformer；butsuchasoperatemorecalmly，andcausenodisorderinthetemper:Whichtranquillityleadsusintoamistakeconcerningthem，andcausesustoregardthemasconclusionsonlyofourintellectualfaculties。Boththecausesandeffectsoftheseviolentandcalmpassionsareprettyvariable，anddepend，inagreatmeasure，onthepeculiartemperanddispositionofeveryindividual。Generallyspeaking，theviolentpassionshaveamorepowerfulinfluenceonthewill；tho’`tisoftenfound，thatthecalmones，whencorroboratedbyreflection，andsecondedbyresolution，areabletocontroulthemintheirmostfuriousmovements。Whatmakesthiswholeaffairmoreuncertain，is，thatacalmpassionmayeasilybechang’dintoaviolentone，eitherbyachangeoftemper，orofthecircumstancesandsituationoftheobject，asbytheborrowingofforcefromanyattendantpassion，bycustom，orbyexcitingtheimagination。Uponthewhole，thisstruggleofpassionandofreason，asitiscall’d，diversifieshumanlife，andmakesmensodifferentnotonlyfromeachother，butalsofromthemselvesindifferenttimes。Philosophycanonlyaccountforafewofthegreaterandmoresensibleeventsofthiswar；butmustleaveallthesmallerandmoredelicaterevolutions，asdependentonprinciplestoofineandminuteforhercomprehension。
SECT。IXOfthedirectpassions’Tiseasytoobserve，thatthepassions，bothdirectandindirect，arefoundedonpainandpleasure，andthatinordertoproduceanaffectionofanykind，`tisonlyrequisitetopresentsomegoodorevil。Upontheremovalofpainandpleasurethereimmediatelyfollowsaremovalofloveandhatred，prideandhumility，desireandaversion，andofmostofourreflectiveorsecondaryimpressions。
Theimpressions，whicharisefromgoodandevilmostnaturally，andwiththeleastpreparationarethedirectpassionsofdesireandaversion，griefandjoy，hopeandfear，alongwithvolition。Themindbyanoriginalinstincttendstouniteitselfwiththegood，andtoavoidtheevil，tho’theybeconceiv’dmerelyinidea，andbeconsider’dastoexistinanyfutureperiodoftime。
Butsupposingthatthereisanimmediateimpressionofpainorpleasure，andthatarisingfromanobjectrelatedtoourselvesorothers，thisdoesnotpreventthepropensityoraversion，withtheconsequentemotions，butbyconcurringwithcertaindormantprinciplesofthehumanmind，excitesthenewimpressionsofprideorhumility，loveorhatred。Thatpropensity，whichunitesustotheobject，orseparatesusfromit，stillcontinuestooperate，butinconjunctionwiththeindirectpassions，whicharisefromadoublerelationofimpressionsandideas。
Theseindirectpassions，beingalwaysagreeableoruneasy，giveintheirturnadditionalforcetothedirectpassions，andencreaseourdesireandaversiontotheobject。Thusasuitoffinecloathsproducespleasurefromtheirbeauty；andthispleasureproducesthedirectpassions，ortheimpressionsofvolitionanddesire。Again，whenthesecloathsareconsider’dasbelongingtoourself，thedoublerelationconveystousthesentimentofpride，whichisanindirectpassion；andthepleasure，whichattendsthatpassion，returnsbacktothedirectaffections，andgivesnewforcetoourdesireorvolition，joyorhope。
Whengoodiscertainorprobable，itproducesjoy。WhenevilisinthesamesituationtherearisesGRIEForSORROW。
Wheneithergoodorevilisuncertain，itgivesrisetoFEARorHOPE，accordingtothedegreesofuncertaintyontheonesideortheother。
DESIREarisesfromgoodconsider’dsimply，andAVERSIONisderiv’dfromevil。TheWILLexertsitself，wheneitherthegoodortheabsenceoftheevilmaybeattain’dbyanyactionofthemindorbody。
Besidegoodandevil，orinotherwords，painandpleasure，thedirectpassionsfrequentlyarisefromanaturalimpulseorinstinct，whichisperfectlyunaccountable。Ofthiskindisthedesireofpunishmenttoourenemies，andofhappinesstoourfriends；hunger，lust，andafewotherbodilyappetites。Thesepassions，properlyspeaking，producegoodandevil，andproceednotfromthem，liketheotheraffections。
Noneofthedirectaffectionsseemtomeritourparticularattention，excepthopeandfear，whichweshallhereendeavourtoaccountfor。`Tisevidentthattheverysameevent，whichbyitscertaintywou’dproducegrieforjoy，givesalwaysrisetofearorhope，whenonlyprobableanduncertain。Inorder，therefore，tounderstandthereasonwhythiscircumstancemakessuchaconsiderabledifference，wemustreflectonwhatIhavealreadyadvanc’dintheprecedingbookconcerningthenatureofprobability。
Probabilityarisesfromanoppositionofcontrarychancesorcauses，bywhichthemindisnotallow’dtofixoneitherside，butisincessantlytostfromonetoanother，andatonemomentisdetermin’dtoconsideranobjectasexistent，andatanothermomentasthecontrary。Theimaginationorunderstanding，callitwhichyouplease，fluctuatesbetwixttheoppositeviews；andtho’perhapsitmaybeoftenerturn’dtotheonesidethantheother，`tisimpossibleforit，byreasonoftheoppositionofcausesorchances，torestoneither。Theproandconofthequestionalternatelyprevail；andthemind，surveyingtheobjectinitsoppositeprinciples，findssuchacontrarietyasutterlydestroysallcertaintyandestablish’dopinion。
Suppose，then，thattheobject，concerningwhoserealitywearedoubtful，isanobjecteitherofdesireoraversion，`tisevident，that，accordingasthemindturnsitselfeithertotheonesideortheother，itmustfeelamomentaryimpressionofjoyorsorrow。Anobject，whoseexistencewedesire，givessatisfaction，whenwereflectonthosecauses，whichproduceit；andforthesamereasonexcitesgrieforuneasinessfromtheoppositeconsideration:Sothatastheunderstanding，inallprobablequestions，isdividedbetwixtthecontrarypointsofview，theaffectionsmustinthesamemannerbedividedbetwixtoppositeemotions。
Nowifweconsiderthehumanmind，weshallfind，thatwithregardtothepassions，`tisnotthenatureofawind-instrumentofmusic，whichinrunningoverallthenotesimmediatelylosesthesoundafterthebreathceases；butratherresemblesastring-instrument，whereaftereachstrokethevibrationsstillretainsomesound，whichgraduallyandinsensiblydecays。Theimaginationisextremequickandagile；butthepassionsareslowandrestive:Forwhichreason，whenanyobjectispresented，thataffordsavarietyofviewstotheone，andemotionstotheother；tho’thefancymaychangeitsviewswithgreatcelerity；eachstrokewillnotproduceaclearanddistinctnoteofpassion，buttheonepassionwillalwaysbemixtandconfoundedwiththeother。Accordingastheprobabilityinclinestogoodorevil，thepassionofjoyorsorrowpredominatesinthecomposition:Becausethenatureofprobabilityistocastasuperiornumberofviewsorchancesononeside；or，whichisthesamething，asuperiornumberofreturnsofonepassion；orsincethedispers’dpassionsarecollectedintoone，asuperiordegreeofthatpassion。Thatis，inotherwords，thegriefandjoybeingintermingledwitheachother，。bymeansofthecontraryviewsoftheimagination，producebytheirunionthepassionsofhopeandfear。
Uponthisheadtheremaybestartedaverycuriousquestionconcerningthatcontrarietyofpassions，whichisourpresentsubject。Tisobservable，thatwheretheobjectsofcontrarypassionsarepresentedatonce，besidetheencreaseofthepredominantpassion(whichhasbeenalreadyexplain’d，andcommonlyarisesattheirfirstshockorrencounter)itsometimeshappens，thatboththepassionsexistsuccessively，andbyshortintervals；sometimes，thattheydestroyeachother，andneitherofthemtakesplace；andsometimesthatbothofthemremainunitedinthemind。Itmay，therefore，beask’d，bywhattheorywecanexplainthesevariations，andtowhatgeneralprinciplewecanreducethem。
Whenthecontrarypassionsarisefromobjectsentirelydifferent，theytakeplacealternately，thewantofrelationintheideasseparatingtheimpressionsfromeachother，andpreventingtheiropposition。Thuswhenamanisafflictedforthelossofalaw-suit，andjoyfulforthebirthofason，themindrunningfromtheagreeabletothecalamitousobject，withwhatevercelerityitmayperformthismotion，canscarcelytempertheoneaffectionwiththeother，andremainbetwixttheminastateofindifference。
Itmoreeasilyattainsthatcalmsituation，whenthesameeventisofamixtnature，andcontainssomethingadverseandsomethingprosperousinitsdifferentcircumstances。Forinthatcase，boththepassions，minglingwitheachotherbymeansoftherelation，becomemutuallydestructive，andleavethemindinperfecttranquility。
Butsuppose，inthethirdplace，thattheobjectisnotacompoundofgoodorevil，butisconsider’dasprobableorimprobableinanydegree；inthatcaseIassert，thatthecontrarypassionswillbothofthembepresentatonceinthesoul，andinsteadofdestroyingandtemperingeachother，willsubsisttogether，andproduceathirdimpressionoraffectionbytheirunion。Contrarypassionsarenotcapableofdestroyingeachother，exceptwhentheircontrarymovementsexactlyrencounter，andareoppositeintheirdirection，aswellasinthesensationtheyproduce。Thisexactrencounterdependsupontherelationsofthoseideas，fromwhichtheyarederiv’d，andismoreorlessperfect，accordingtothedegreesoftherelation。Inthecaseofprobabilitythecontrarychancesaresofarrelated，thattheydetermineconcerningtheexistenceornon-existenceofthesameobject。Butthisrelationisfarfrombeingperfect；sincesomeofthechanceslieonthesideofexistence，andothersonthatofnon-existence；whichareobjectsaltogetherincompatible。`Tisimpossiblebyonesteadyviewtosurveytheoppositechances，andtheeventsdependentonthem；but`tisnecessary，thattheimaginationshou’drunalternatelyfromtheonetotheother。Eachviewoftheimaginationproducesitspeculiarpassion，whichdecaysawaybydegrees，andisfollow’dbyasensiblevibrationafterthestroke。Theincompatibilityoftheviewskeepsthepassionsfromshockinginadirectline，ifthatexpressionmaybeallow’d；andyettheirrelationissufficienttomingletheirfainteremotions。Tisafterthismannerthathopeandfeararisefromthedifferentmixtureoftheseoppositepassionsofgriefandjoy，andfromtheirimperfectunionandconjunction。
Uponthewhole，contrarypassionssucceedeachotheralternately，whentheyarisefromdifferentobjects:Theymutuallydestroyeachother，whentheyproceedfromdifferentpartsofthesame:Andtheysubsistbothofthem。andmingletogether，whentheyarederiv’dfromthecontraryandincompatiblechancesorpossibilities，onwhichanyoneobjectdepends。Theinfluenceoftherelationsofideasisplainlyseeninthiswholeaffair。Iftheobjectsofthecontrarypassionsbetotallydifferent，thepassionsareliketwooppositeliquorsindifferentbottles，whichhavenoinfluenceoneachother。Iftheobjectsbeintimatelyconnected，thepassionsarelikeanalcaliandanacid，which，beingmingled，destroyeachother。Iftherelationbemoreimperfect，andconsistsinthecontradictoryviewsofthesameobject，thepassionsarelikeoilandvinegar，which，howevermingled，neverperfectlyuniteandincorporate。
Asthehypothesisconcerninghopeandfearcarriesitsownevidencealongwithit，weshallbethemoreconciseinourproofs。Afewstrongargumentsarebetterthanmanyweakones。
Thepassionsoffearandhopemayarisewhenthechancesareequalonbothsides，andnosuperioritycanbediscover’dintheoneabovetheother。Nay，inthissituationthepassionsareratherthestrongest，asthemindhasthentheleastfoundationtorestupon，andistoss’dwiththegreatestuncertainty。Throwinasuperiordegreeofprobabilitytothesideofgrief，youimmediatelyseethatpassiondiffuseitselfoverthecomposition，andtinctureitintofear。Encreasetheprobability，andbythatmeansthegrief，thefearprevailsstillmoreandmore，tillatlastitrunsinsensibly，asthejoycontinuallydiminishes，intopuregrief。Afteryouhavebroughtittothissituation，diminishthegrief，afterthesamemannerthatyouencreas’dit；bydiminishingtheprobabilityonthatside，andyou’llseethepassioncleareverymoment，`tillitchangesinsensiblyintohope；whichagainruns，afterthesamemanner，byslowdegrees，intojoy，asyouencreasethatpartofthecompositionbytheencreaseoftheprobability。Arenottheseasplainproofs，thatthepassionsoffearandhopearemixturesofgriefandjoy，asinoptics`tisaproof，thatacolour’drayofthesunpassingthro’aprism，isacompositionoftwoothers，when，asyoudiminishorencreasethequantityofeither，youfinditprevailproportionablymoreorlessinthecomposition？Iamsureneithernaturalnormoralphilosophyadmitsofstrongerproofs。
Probabilityisoftwokinds，eitherwhentheobjectisreallyinitselfuncertain，andtobedetermin’dbychance；orwhen，tho’theobjectbealreadycertain，yet`tisuncertaintoourjudgment，whichfindsanumberofproofsoneachsideofthequestion。Boththesekindsofprobabilitiescausefearandhope；whichcanonlyproceedfromthatproperty，inwhichtheyagree，viz，theuncertaintyandfluctuationtheybestowontheimaginationbythatcontrarietyofviews，whichiscommontoboth。
`Tisaprobablegoodorevil，thatcommonlyproduceshopeorfear；becauseprobability，beingawaveringandunconstantmethodofsurveyinganobject，causesnaturallyalikemixtureanduncertaintyofpassion。Butwemayobserve，thatwhereverfromothercausesthismixturecanbeproduc’d，thepassionsoffearandhopewillarise，eventho’therebenoprobability；whichmustbeallow’dtobeaconvincingproofofthepresenthypothesis。Wefindthatanevil，barelyconceiv’daspossible，doessometimesproducefear；especiallyiftheevilbeverygreat。Amancannotthinkofexcessivepainsandtortureswithouttrembling，ifhebeintheleastdangerofsufferingthem。Thesmallnessoftheprobabilityiscompensatedbythegreatnessoftheevil；andthesensationisequallylively，asiftheevilweremoreprobable。Onevieworglimpseoftheformer，hasthesameeffectasseveralofthelatter。
Buttheyarenotonlypossibleevils，thatcausefear，butevensomeallow’dtobeimpossible；aswhenwetrembleonthebrinkofaprecipice，tho’weknowourselvestobeinperfectsecurity，andhaveitinourchoicewhetherwewiliadvanceastepfarther。Thisproceedsfromtheimmediatepresenceoftheevil，whichinfluencestheimaginationinthesamemannerasthecertaintyofitwou’ddo；butbeingencounter’dbythereflectiononoursecurity，isimmediatelyretracted，andcausesthesamekindofpassion，aswhenfromacontrarietyofchancescontrarypassionsareproduc’d。
Evils，thatarecertain，havesometimesthesameeffectinproducingfear，asthepossibleorimpossible。Thusamaninastrongprisonwell-guarded，withouttheleastmeansofescape，tremblesatthethoughtoftherack，towhichheissentenc’d。Thishappensonlywhenthecertainevilisterribleandconfounding；inwhichcasethemindcontinuallyrejectsitwithhorror，whileitcontinuallypressesinuponthethought。Theevilisthereflx’dandestablish’d，butthemindcannotenduretofixuponit；fromwhichfluctuationanduncertaintytherearisesapassionofmuchthesameappearancewithfear。
But`tisnotonlywheregoodorevilisuncertain，astoitsexistence，butalsoastoitskind，thatfearorhopearises。Letonebetoldbyaperson，whoseveracityhecannotdoubtof，thatoneofhissonsissuddenlykill’d，`tisevidentthepassionthiseventwou’doccasion，wou’dnotsettleintopuregrief，tillhegotcertaininformation，whichofhissonshehadlost。Herethereisanevilcertain，butthekindofituncertain。Consequentlythefearwefeelonthisoccasioniswithouttheleastmixtureofjoy，andarisesmerelyfromthefluctuationofthefancybetwixtitsobjects。Andtho’eachsideofthequestionproducesherethesamepassion，yetthatpassioncannotsettle，butreceivesfromtheimaginationatremulousandunsteadymotion，resemblinginitscause，aswellasinitssensation，themixtureandcontentionofgriefandjoy。
Fromtheseprincipleswemayaccountforaphaenomenoninthepassions，whichatfirstsightseemsveryextraordinary，viz，thatsurprizeisapttochangeintofear，andeverythingthatisunexpectedaffrightsus。Themostobviousconclusionfromthisis，thathumannatureisingeneralpusillanimous；sinceuponthesuddenappearanceofanyobject。weimmediatelyconcludeittobeanevil，andwithoutwaitingtillwecanexamineitsnature，whetheritbegoodorbad，areatfirstaffectedwithfear。ThisIsayisthemostobviousconclusion；butuponfartherexaminationweshallfindthatthephaenomenonisotherwisetobeaccountedfor。Thesuddennessandstrangenessofanappearancenaturallyexciteacommotioninthemind，likeeverythingforwhichwearenotprepar’d，andtowhichwearenotaccustom’d。Thiscommotion，again，naturallyproducesacuriosityorinquisitiveness，whichbeingveryviolent，fromthestrongandsuddenimpulseoftheobject，becomesuneasy，andresemblesinitsfluctuationanduncertainty，thesensationoffearorthemix’dpassionsofgriefandjoy。Thisimageoffearnaturallyconvertsintothethingitself，andgivesusarealapprehensionofevil，asthemindalwaysformsitsjudgmentsmorefromitspresentdispositionthanfromthenatureofitsobjects。
Thusallkindsofuncertaintyhaveastrongconnexionwithfear，eventho’theydonotcauseanyoppositionofpassionsbytheoppositeviewsandconsiderationstheypresenttous。Aperson，whohaslefthisfriendinanymalady，willfeelmoreanxietyuponhisaccount，thanifhewerepresent，tho’perhapsheisnotonlyincapableofgivinghimassistance，butlikewiseofjudgingoftheeventofhissickness。Inthiscase，tho’theprincipalobjectofthepassion，viz，thelifeordeathofhisfriend，betohimequallyuncertainwhenpresentaswhenabsent；yetthereareathousandlittlecircumstancesofhisfriend’ssituationandcondition，theknowledgeofwhichfixestheidea，andpreventsthatfluctuationanduncertaintysonearally’dtofear。Uncertaintyis，indeed，inonerespectasnearally’dtohopeastofear，sinceitmakesanessentialpartinthecompositionoftheformerpassion；butthereason，whyitinclinesnottothatside，is，thatuncertaintyaloneisuneasy，andhasareladonofimpressionstotheuneasypassions。
`Tisthusouruncertaintyconcerninganyminutecircumstancerelatingtoapersonencreasesourapprehensionsofhisdeathormisfortune。Horacehasremark’dthisphaenomenon。
UtassidensimplumibuspullusavisSerpentiumallapsustirnet，Magisrelictis；non，utadsit，auxiliLaturapluspresentibus。
[Asabird，watchingoverherfledgelings，ismoreafraidoftheirbeingattackedbysnakesifsheweretoleavethemeventhough，wereshetostay，shewouldnotbeanymorecapableofhelpingthem，whentheywerewithher。]
ButthisprincipleoftheconnexionoffearwithuncertaintyIcarryfarther，andobservethatanydoubtproducesthatpassion，eventho’itpresentsnothingtousonanysidebutwhatisgoodanddesireable。Avirgin，onherbridalnightgoestobedfulloffearsandapprehensions，tho’sheexpectsnothingbutpleasureofthehighestkind，andwhatshehaslongwish’dfor。Thenewnessandgreatnessoftheevent，theconfusionofwishesandjoyssoembarrassthemind，thatitknowsnotonwhatpassiontofixitself；fromwhencearisesaflutteringorunsettlednessofthespirits。whichbeing，insomedegree，uneasy，verynaturallydegeneratesintofear。
Thuswestillfind，thatwhatevercausesanyfluctuationormixtureofpassions，withanydegreeofuneasiness，alwaysproducesfear，oratleastapassionsolikeit，thattheyarescarcelytobedistinguish’d。
Ihavehereconfin’dmyselftotheexaminationofhopeandfearintheirmostsimpleandnaturalsituation，withoutconsideringallthevariationstheymayreceivefromthemixtureofdifferentviewsandreflections。Terror，consternation，astonishment，anxiety，andotherpassionsofthatkind，arenothingbutdifferentspeciesanddegreesoffear。`Tiseasytoimaginehowadifferentsituationoftheobject，oradifferentturnofthought，maychangeeventhesensationofapassion；andthismayingeneralaccountforalltheparticularsub-divisionsoftheotheraffections，aswellasoffear。Lovemayshewitselfintheshapeoftenderness，friendship，intimacy，esteem，good-will，andinmanyotherappearances；whichatthebottomarethesameaffections；andarisefromthesamecauses，tho’withasmallvariation，whichitisnotnecessarytogiveanyparticularaccountof。`TisforthisreasonIhaveallalongconfin’dmyselftotheprincipalpassion。
ThesamecareofavoidingprolixityisthereasonwhyIwavetheexaminationofthewillanddirectpassions，astheyappearinanimals；sincenothingismoreevident，thanthattheyareofthesamenature，andexcitedbythesamecausesasinhumancreatures。Ileavethistothereader’sownobservation；desiringhimatthesametimetoconsidertheadditionalforcethisbestowsonthepresentsystem。
Ofcuriosity，ortheloveoftruthButmethinkswehavebeennotalittleinattentivetorunoversomanydifferentpartsofthehumanmind，andexaminesomanypassions，withouttakingonceintotheconsiderationthatloveoftruth，whichwasthefirstsourceofallourenquiries。Twillthereforebeproper，beforeweleavethissubject，tobestowafewreflectionsonthatpassion，andshewitsorigininhumannature。`Tisanaffectionofsopeculiarakind，that`twouldhavebeenimpossibletohavetreatedofitunderanyofthoseheads，whichwehaveexamin’d，withoutdangerofobscurityandconfusion。
Truthisoftwokinds，consistingeitherinthediscoveryoftheproportionsofideas，consider’dassuch，orintheconformityofourideasofobjectstotheirrealexistence。`Tiscertain，thattheformerspeciesoftruth，isnotdesir’dmerelyastruth，andthat`tisnotthejustnessofourconclusions，whichalonegivesthepleasure。Fortheseconclusionsareequallyjust，whenwediscovertheequalityoftwobodiesbyapairofcompasses，aswhenwelearnitbyamathematicaldemonstration；andtho’intheonecasetheproofsbedemonstrative，andintheotheronlysensible，yetgenerallyspeaking，themindacquiesceswithequalassuranceintheoneasintheother。Andinanarithmeticaloperation，whereboththetruthandtheassuranceareofthesamenature，asinthemostprofoundalgebraicalproblem，thepleasureisveryinconsiderable，ifratheritdoesnotdegenerateintopain:Whichisanevidentproof，thatthesatisfaction，whichwesometimesreceivefromthediscoveryoftruth，proceedsnotfromit，merelyassuch，butonlyasendow’dwithcertainqualities。
Thefirstandmostconsiderablecircumstancerequisitetorendertruthagreeable，isthegeniusandcapacity，whichisemploy’dinitsinventionanddiscovery。Whatiseasyandobviousisnevervalu’d；andevenwhatisinitselfdifficult，ifwecometotheknowledgeofitwithoutdifficulty，andwithoutanystretchofthoughtorjudgment，isbutlittleregarded。Welovetotracethedemonstrationsofmathematicians；butshou’dreceivesmallentertainmentfromaperson，whoshou’dbarelyinformusoftheproportionsoflinesandangles，tho’werepos’dtheutmostconfidencebothinhisjudgmentandveracity。Inthiscase`tissufficienttohaveearstolearnthetruth。Weneverareoblig’dtofixourattentionorexertourgenius；whichofallotherexercisesofthemindisthemostpleasantandagreeable。
Buttho’theexerciseofgeniusbetheprincipalsourceofthatsatisfactionwereceivefromthesciences，yetIdoubt，ifitbealonesufficienttogiveusanyconsiderableenjoyment。Thetruthwediscovermustalsobeofsomeimportance。Tiseasytomultiplyalgebraicalproblemstoinfinity，noristhereanyendinthediscoveryoftheproportionsofconicsections；tho’fewmathematicianstakeanypleasureintheseresearches，butturntheirthoughtstowhatismoreusefulandimportant。Nowthequestionis，afterwhatmannerthisutilityandimportanceoperateuponus？Thedifficultyonthisheadarisesfromhence，thatmanyphilosophershaveconsum’dtheirtime，havedestroy’dtheirhealth，andneglectedtheirfortune，inthesearchofsuchtruths，astheyesteem’dimportantandusefultotheworld，tho’itappear’dfromtheirwholeconductandbehaviour，thattheywerenotendow’dwithanyshareofpublicspirit，norhadanyconcernfortheinterestsofmankind。Weretheyconvinc’d，thattheirdiscoverieswereofnoconsequence，theywou’dentirelyloseallrelishfortheirstudies，andthattho’theconsequencesbeentirelyindifferenttothem；whichseemstobeacontradiction。
Toremovethiscontradiction，wemustconsider，thattherearecertaindesiresandinclinations，whichgonofartherthantheimagination，andareratherthefaintshadowsandimagesofpassions，thananyrealaffections。Thus，supposeaman，whotakesasurveyofthefortificationsofanycity；considerstheirstrengthandadvantages，naturaloracquir’d；observesthedispositionandcontrivanceofthebastions，ramparts，mines，andothermilitaryworks；`tisplain，thatinproportionasallthesearefittedtoattaintheirendshewillreceiveasuitablepleasureandsatisfaction。Thispleasure，asitarisesfromtheutility，nottheformoftheobjects，canbenootherthanasympathywiththeinhabitants，forwhosesecurityallthisartisemploy’d；tho’`tispossible，thatthisperson，asastrangeroranenemy，mayinhishearthavenokindnessforthem，ormayevenentertainahatredagainstthem。
Itmayindeedbeobjected，thatsucharemotesympathyisaveryslightfoundationforapassion，andthatsomuchindustryandapplication，aswefrequentlyobserveinphilosophers，canneverbederiv’dfromsoinconsiderableanoriginal。ButhereIreturntowhatIhavealreadyremark’d，thatthepleasureofstudyconflictschieflyintheactionofthemind，andtheexerciseofthegeniusandunderstandinginthediscoveryorcomprehensionofanytruth。Iftheimportanceofthetruthberequisitetocompleatthepleasure，`tisnotonaccountofanyconsiderableaddition，whichofitselfitbringstoourenjoyment，butonlybecause`tis，insomemeasure，requisitetofixourattention。Whenwearecarelessandinattentive，thesameactionoftheunderstandinghasnoeffectuponus，norisabletoconveyanyofthatsatisfaction，whicharisesfromit，whenweareinanotherdisposition。
Butbesidetheactionofthemind，whichistheprincipalfoundationofthepleasure，thereislikewiserequir’dadegreeofsuccessintheattainmentoftheend，orthediscoveryofthattruthweexamine。UponthisheadIshallmakeageneralremark，whichmaybeusefulonmanyoccasions，viz，thatwherethemindpursuesanyendwithpassion；tho’thatpassionbenotderiv’doriginallyfromtheend，butmerelyfromtheactionandpursuit；yetbythenaturalcourseoftheaffections，weacquireaconcernfortheenditself，andareuneasyunderanydisappointmentwemeetwithinthepursuitofit。Thisproceedsfromtherelationandparalleldirectionofthepassionsabove-mention’d。
Toillustrateallthisbyasimilarinstance，Ishallobserve，thattherecannotbetwopassionsmorenearlyresemblingeachother，thanthoseofhuntingandphilosophy，whateverdisproportionmayatfirstsightappearbetwixtthem。`Tisevident，thatthepleasureofhuntingconflictsintheactionofthemindandbody；themotion，theattention，thedifficulty，andtheuncertainty。Tisevidentlikewise，thattheseactionsmustbeattendedwithanideaofutility，inordertotheirhavinganyeffectuponus。Amanofthegreatestfortune，andthefarthestremov’dfromavarice，tho’hetakesapleasureinhuntingafterpatridgesandpheasants，feelsnosatisfactioninshootingcrowsandmagpies；andthatbecauseheconsidersthefirstasfitforthetable，andtheotherasentirelyuseless。Here`tiscertain，thattheutilityorimportanceofitselfcausesnorealpassion，butisonlyrequisitetosupporttheimagination；andthesameperson，whoover-looksatentimesgreaterprofitinanyothersubject，ispleas’dtobringhomehalfadozenwoodcocksorplovers，afterhavingemploy’dseveralhoursinhuntingafterthem。Tomaketheparallelbetwixthuntingandphilosophymorecompleat，wemayobserve，thattho’inbothcasestheendofouractionmayinitselfbedespis’d，yetintheheatoftheactionweacquiresuchanattentiontothisend，thatweareveryuneasyunderanydisappointments，andaresorrywhenweeithermissourgame，orfallintoanyerrorinourreasoning。
