OfchastityandmodestyIfanydifficultyattendthissystemconcerningthelawsofnatureandnations，`twillbewithregardtotheuniversalapprobationorblame，whichfollowstheirobservanceortransgression，andwhichsomemaynotthinksufficientlyexplain’dfromthegeneralinterestsofsociety。Toremove，asfaraspossible，allscruplesofthiskind，Ishallhereconsideranothersetofduties，viz，themodestyandchastitywhichbelongtothefairsex:AndIdoubtnotbutthesevirtueswillbefoundtobestillmoreconspicuousinstancesoftheoperationofthoseprinciples，whichIhaveinsistedon。
Therearesomephilosophers，whoattackthefemalevirtueswithgreatvehemence，andfancytheyhavegoneveryfarindetectingpopularerrors，whentheycanshow，thatthereisnofoundationinnatureforallthatexteriormodesty，whichwerequireintheexpressions，anddress，andbehaviourofthefairsex。IbelieveImaysparemyselfthetroubleofinsistingonsoobviousasubject，andmayproceed，withoutfartherpreparation，toexamineafterwhatmannersuchnotionsarisefromeducation，fromthevoluntaryconventionsofmen，andfromtheinterestofsociety。
Whoeverconsidersthelengthandfeeblenessofhumaninfancy，withtheconcernwhichbothsexesnaturallyhavefortheiroffspring，willeasilyperceive，thattheremustbeanunionofmaleandfemalefortheeducationoftheyoung，andthatthisunionmustbeofconsiderableduration。Butinordertoinducethementoimposeonthemselvesthisrestraint，andundergochearfullyallthefatiguesandexpences，towhichitsubjectsthem，theymustbelieve，thatthechildrenaretheirown，andthattheirnaturalinstinctisnotdirectedtoawrongobject，whentheygivealoosetoloveandtenderness。Nowifweexaminethestructureofthehumanbody，weshallfind，thatthissecurityisverydifficulttobeattain’donourpart；andthatsince，inthecopulationofthesexes，theprincipleofgenerationgoesfromthemantothewoman，anerrormayeasilytakeplaceonthesideoftheformer，tho’itbeutterlyimpossiblewithregardtothelatter。Fromthistrivialandanatomicalobservationisderiv’dthatvastdifferencebetwixttheeducationanddutiesofthetwosexes。
Wereaphilosophertoexaminethematterapriori，hewou’dreasonafterthefollowingmanner。Menareinduc’dtolabourforthemaintenanceandeducationoftheirchildren，bythepersuasionthattheyarereallytheirown；andtherefore`tisreasonable，andevennecessary，togivethemsomesecurityinthisparticular。Thissecuritycannotconsistentirelyintheimposingofseverepunishmentsonanytransgressionsofconjugalfidelityonthepartofthewife；sincethesepublicpunishmentscannotbeinflictedwithoutlegalproof，which`tisdifficulttomeetwithinthissubject。Whatrestraint，therefore，shallweimposeonwomen，inordertocounter-balancesostrongatemptationastheyhavetoinfidelity？Thereseemstobenorestraintpossible，butinthepunishmentofbadfameorreputation；apunishment，whichhasamightyinfluenceonthehumanmind，andatthesametimeisinflictedbytheworlduponsurmizes，andconjectures，andproofs，thatwou’dneverbereceiv’dinanycourtofjudicature。Inorder，therefore，toimposeaduerestraintonthefemalesex，wemustattachapeculiardegreeofshametotheirinfidelity，abovewhatarisesmerelyfromitsinjustice，andmustbestowproportionablepraisesontheirchastity。
Buttho’thisbeaverystrongmotivetofidelity，ourphilosopherwou’dquicklydiscover，thatitwou’dnotalonebesufficienttothatpurpose。Allhumancreatures，especiallyofthefemalesex，areapttoover-lookremotemotivesinfavourofanypresenttemptation:Thetemptationisherethestrongestimaginable:Itsapproachesareinsensibleandseducing:Andawomaneasilyfinds，orflattersherselfsheshallfind，certainmeansofsecuringherreputation，andpreventingalltheperniciousconsequencesofherpleasures。Tisnecessary，therefore，that，besidetheinfamyattendingsuchlicences，thereshou’dbesomeprecedingbackwardnessordread，whichmaypreventtheirfirstapproaches，andmaygivethefemalesexarepugnancetoallexpressions，andpostures，andliberties，thathaveanimmediaterelationtothatenjoyment。
Suchwou’dbethereasoningsofourspeculativephilosopher:ButIampersuaded，thatifhehadnotaperfectknowledgeofhumannature，hewou’dbeapttoregardthemasmerechimericalspeculations，andwou’dconsidertheinfamyattendinginfidelity，andbackwardnesstoallitsapproaches，asprinciplesthatwererathertobewish’dthanhop’dforintheworld。Forwhatmeans，wou’dhesay，ofpersuadingmankind，thatthetransgressionsofconjugaldutyaremoreinfamousthananyotherkindofinjustice，when`tisevidenttheyaremoreexcusable，uponaccountofthegreatnessofthetemptation？Andwhatpossibilityofgivingabackwardnesstotheapproachesofapleasure，towhichnaturehasinspir’dsostrongapropensity；andapropensitythat`tisabsolutelynecessaryintheendtocomplywith，forthesupportofthespecies？
Butspeculativereasonings，whichcostsomuchpainstophilosophers，areoftenform’dbytheworldnaturally，andwithoutreflection:Asdifficulties，whichseemunsurmountableintheory，areeasilygotoverinpractice。Those，whohaveaninterestinthefidelityofwomen，naturallydisapproveoftheirinfidelity，andalltheapproachestoit。Those，whohavenointerest，arecarriedalongwiththestream。Educationtakespossessionoftheductilemindsofthefairsexintheirinfancy。Andwhenageneralruleofthiskindisonceestablish’d，menareapttoextenditbeyondthoseprinciples，fromwhichitfirstarose。Thusbatchelors，howeverdebauch’d，cannotchusebutbeshock’dwithanyinstanceoflewdnessorimpudenceinwomen。Andtho’allthesemaximshaveaplainreferencetogeneration，yetwomenpastchild-bearinghavenomoreprivilegeinthisrespect，thanthosewhoareinthefloweroftheiryouthandbeauty。Menhaveundoubtedlyanimplicitnotion，thatallthoseideasofmodestyanddecencyhavearegardtogeneration；sincetheyimposenotthesamelaws，withthesameforce，onthemalesex，wherethatreasontakesnorplace。Theexceptionisthereobviousandextensive，andfoundedonaremarkabledifference，whichproducesaclearseparationanddisjunctionofideas。Butasthecaseisnotthesamewithregardtothedifferentagesofwomen，forthisreason，tho’menknow，thatthesenotionsarefoundedonthepublicinterest，yetthegeneralrulecarriesusbeyondtheoriginalprinciple，andmakesusextendthenotionsofmodestyoverthewholesex，fromtheirearliestinfancytotheirextremestold-ageandinfirmity。
Courage，whichisthepointofhonouramongmen，derivesitsmerit，inagreatmeasure，fromartifice，aswellasthechastityofwomen；tho’ithasalsosomefoundationinnature，asweshallseeafterwards。
Astotheobligationswhichthemalesexlieunder，withregardtochastity，wemayobserve，thataccordingtothegeneralnotionsoftheworld，theybearnearlythesameproportiontotheobligationsofwomen，astheobligationsofthelawofnationsdotothoseofthelawofnature。Tiscontrarytotheinterestofcivilsociety，thatmenshou’dhaveanentirelibertyofindulgingtheirappetitesinvenerealenjoyment:Butasthisinterestisweakerthaninthecaseofthefemalesex，themoralobligation，arisingfromit，mustbeproportionablyweaker。Andtoprovethisweneedonlyappealtothepracticeandsentimentsofallnationsandages。
OftheothervirtuesandvicesSECT。I
OftheoriginofthenaturalvirtuesandvicesWecomenowtotheexaminationofsuchvirtuesandvicesasareentirelynatural，andhavenodependanceontheartificeandcontrivanceofmen。Theexaminationofthesewillconcludethissystemofmorals。
Thechiefspringoractuatingprincipleofthehumanmindispleasureorpain；andwhenthesesensationsareremov’d，bothfromourthoughtandfeeling，weare，inagreatmeasure，incapableofpassionoraction，ofdesireorvolition。Themostimmediateeffectsofpleasureandpainarethepropenseandaversemotionsofthemind；whicharediversifiedintovolition，intodesireandaversion，griefandjoy，hopeandfear，accordingasthepleasureorpainchangesitssituation，andbecomesprobableorimprobable，certainoruncertain，orisconsider’dasoutofourpowerforthepresentmoment。Butwhenalongwiththis，theobjects，thatcausepleasureorpain，acquirearelationtoourselvesorothers；theystillcontinuetoexcitedesireandaversion，griefandjoy:Butcause，atthesametime，theindirectpassionsofprideorhumility，loveorhatred，whichinthiscasehaveadoublerelationofimpressionsandideastothepainorpleasure。
Wehavealreadyobserv’d，thatmoraldistinctionsdependentirelyoncertainpeculiarsentimentsofpainandpleasure，andthatwhatevermentalqualityinourselvesorothersgivesusasatisfaction，bythesurveyorreflection，isofcoursevirtuous；aseverythingofthisnature，thatgivesuneasiness，isvicious。Nowsinceeveryqualityinourselvesorothers，whichgivespleasure，alwayscausesprideorlove；aseveryone，thatproducesuneasiness，exciteshumilityorhatred:Itfollows，thatthesetwoparticularsaretobeconsider’dasequivalent，withregardtoourmentalqualities，virtueandthepowerofproducingloveorpride，viceandthepowerofproducinghumilityorhatred。Ineverycase，therefore，wemustjudgeoftheonebytheother；andmaypronounceanyqualityofthemindvirtuous，whichcausesloveorpride；andanyonevicious，whichcauseshatredorhumility。
Ifanyactionbeeithervirtuousorvicious，`tisonlyasasignofsomequalityorcharacter。Itmustdependupondurableprinciplesofthemind，whichextendoverthewholeconduct，andenterintothepersonalcharacter。Actionsthemselves，notproceedingfromanyconstantprinciple，havenoinfluenceonloveorhatred，prideorhumility；andconsequentlyareneverconsider’dinmorality。
Thisreflectionisself-evident，anddeservestobeattendedto，asbeingoftheutmostimportanceinthepresentsubject。Wearenevertoconsideranysingleactioninourenquiriesconcerningtheoriginofmorals；butonlythequalityorcharacterfromwhichtheactionproceeded。Thesealonearedurableenoughtoaffectoursentimentsconcerningtheperson。Actionsare，indeed，betterindicationsofacharacterthanwords，orevenwishesandsentiments；but`tisonlysofarastheyaresuchindications，thattheyareattendedwithloveorhatred，praiseorblame。
Todiscoverthetrueoriginofmorals，andofthatloveorhatred，whicharisesfrommentalqualities，wemusttakethematterprettydeep，andcomparesomeprinciples，whichhavebeenalreadyexamin’dandexplain’d。
Wemaybeginwithconsideringa-newthenatureandforceofsympathy。Themindsofallmenaresimilarintheirfeelingsandoperations；norcananyonebeactuatedbyanyaffection，ofwhichallothersarenot，insomedegree，susceptible。Asinstringsequallywoundup，themotionofonecommunicatesitselftotherest；soalltheaffectionsreadilypassfromonepersontoanother，andbegetcorrespondentmovementsineveryhumancreature。WhenIseetheeffectsofpassioninthevoiceandgestureofanyperson，mymindimmediatelypassesfromtheseeffectstotheircauses，andformssuchalivelyideaofthepassion，asispresentlyconvertedintothepassionitself。Inlikemanner，whenIperceivethecausesofanyemotion，mymindisconvey’dtotheeffects，andisactuatedwithalikeemotion。WereIpresentatanyofthemoreterribleoperationsofsurgery，`tiscertain，thatevenbeforeitbegun，thepreparationoftheinstruments，thelayingofthebandagesinorder，theheatingoftheirons，withallthesignsofanxietyandconcerninthepatientandassistants，wou’dhaveagreateffectuponmymind，andexcitethestrongestsentimentsofpityandterror。Nopassionofanotherdiscoversitselfimmediatelytothemind。Weareonlysensibleofitscausesoreffects。Fromtheseweinferthepassion:Andconsequentlythesegiverisetooursympathy。
Oursenseofbeautydependsverymuchonthisprinciple；andwhereanyobjecthasatendencytoproducepleasureinitspossessor，itisalwaysregardedasbeautiful；aseveryobject，thathasatendencytoproducepain，isdisagreeableanddeform’d。Thustheconveniencyofahouse，thefertilityofafield，thestrengthofahorse，thecapacity，security，andswift-sailingofavessel，formtheprincipalbeautyoftheseseveralobjects。Heretheobject，whichisdenominatedbeautiful，pleasesonlybyitstendencytoproduceacertaineffect。Thateffectisthepleasureoradvantageofsomeotherperson。Nowthepleasureofastranger，forwhomwehavenofriendship，pleasesusonlybysympathy。Tothisprinciple，therefore，isowingthebeauty，whichwefindineverythingthatisuseful。Howconsiderableapartthisisofbeautywrneasilyappearuponreflection。Whereveranobjecthasatendencytoproducepleasureinthepossessor，orinotherwords，isthepropercauseofpleasure，itissuretopleasethespectator，byadelicatesympathywiththepossessor。Mostoftheworksofartareesteem’dbeautiful，inproportiontotheirfitnessfortheuseofman，andevenmanyoftheproductionsofnaturederivetheirbeautyfromthatsource。Handsomeandbeautiful，onmostoccasions，isnoranabsolutebutarelativequality，andpleasesusbynothingbutitstendencytoproduceanendthatisagreeable。(17)
Thesameprincipleproduces，inmanyinstances，oursentimentsofmorals，aswellasthoseofbeauty。Novirtueismoreesteem’dthanjustice，andnovicemoredetestedthaninjustice；norarethereanyqualities，whichgofarthertothefixingthecharacter，eitherasamiableorodious。Nowjusticeisamoralvirtue，merelybecauseithasthattendencytothegoodofmankind；and，indeed，isnothingbutanartificialinventiontothatpurpose。Thesamemaybesaidofallegiance，ofthelawsofnations，ofmodesty，andofgood-manners。Allthesearemerehumancontrivancesfortheinterestofsociety。Andsincethereisaverystrongsentimentofmorals，whichinallnations，andallages，hasattendedthem，wemustallow，thatthereflectingonthetendencyofcharactersandmentalqualities，issufficienttogiveusthesentimentsofapprobationandblame。Nowasthemeanstoanendcanonlybeagreeable，wheretheendisagreeable；andasthegoodofsociety，whereourowninterestisnotconcern’d，orthatofourfriends，pleasesonlybysympathy:Itfollows，thatsympathyisthesourceoftheesteem，whichwepaytoalltheartificialvirtues。
Thusitappears，thatsympathyisaverypowerfulprincipleinhumannature，thatithasagreatinfluenceonourtasteofbeauty，andthatitproducesoursentimentofmoralsinalltheartificialvirtues。Fromthencewemaypresume，thatitalsogivesrisetomanyoftheothervirtues；andthatqualitiesacquireourapprobation，becauseoftheirtendencytothegoodofmankind。Thispresumptionmustbecomeacertainty，whenwefindthatmostofthosequalities，whichwenaturallyapproveof，haveactuallythattendency，andrenderamanapropermemberofsociety:Whilethequalities，whichwenaturallydisapproveof，haveacontrarytendency，andrenderanyintercoursewiththepersondangerousordisagreeable。Forhavingfound，thatsuchtendencieshaveforceenoughtoproducethestrongestsentimentofmorals，wecanneverreasonably，inthesecases，lookforanyothercauseofapprobationorblame；itbeinganinviolablemaximinphilosophy，thatwhereanyparticularcauseissufficientforaneffect，weoughttorestsatisfiedwithit，andoughtnottomultiplycauseswithoutnecessity。Wehavehappilyattain’dexperimentsintheartificialvirtues，wherethetendencyofqualitiestothegoodofsociety，isthesolecauseofourapprobation，withoutanysuspicionoftheconcurrenceofanotherprinciple。Fromthencewelearntheforceofthatprinciple。Andwherethatprinciplemaytakeplace，andthequalityapprov’dofisreallybeneficialtosociety，atruephilosopherwillneverrequireanyotherprincipletoaccountforthestrongestapprobationandesteem。
Thatmanyofthenaturalvirtueshavethistendencytothegoodofsociety，noonecandoubtof。Meekness，beneficence，charity，generosity，clemency，moderation，equitybearthegreatestfigureamongthemoralqualities，andarecommonlydenominatedthesocialvirtues，tomarktheirtendencytothegoodofsociety。Thisgoessofar，thatsomephilosophershaverepresentedallmoraldistinctionsastheeffectofartificeandeducation，whenskilfulpoliticiansendeavour’dtorestraintheturbulentpassionsofmen，andmakethemoperatetothepublicgood，bythenotionsofhonourandshame。Thissystem，however，isnorconsistentwithexperience。For，first，thereareothervirtuesandvicesbesidethosewhichhavethistendencytothepublicadvantageandloss。Secondly，hadnotmenanaturalsentimentofapprobationandblame，itcou’dneverbeexcitedbypoliticians；norwou’dthewordslaudableandpraise-worthy，blameableandodiousbeanymoreintelligible，thaniftheywerealanguageperfectlyknowntous，aswehavealreadyobserv’d。Buttho’thissystembeerroneous，itmayteachus，thatmoraldistinctionsarise，inagreatmeasure，fromthetendencyofqualitiesandcharacterstotheinterestsofsociety，andthat`tisourconcernforthatinterest，whichmakesusapproveordisapproveofthem。Nowwehavenosuchextensiveconcernforsocietybutfromsympathy；andconsequently`tisthatprinciple，whichtakesussofaroutofourselves，astogiveusthesamepleasureoruneasinessinthecharactersofothers，asiftheyhadatendencytoourownadvantageorloss。
Theonlydifferencebetwixtthenaturalvirtuesandjusticeliesinthis，thatthegood，whichresultsfromtheformer，arisesfromeverysingleact，andistheobjectofsomenaturalpassion:Whereasasingleactofjustice，consider’dinitself，mayoftenbecontrarytothepublicgood；and`tisonlytheconcurrenceofmankind，inageneralschemeorsystemofaction，whichisadvantageous。WhenIrelievepersonsindistress，mynaturalhumanityismymotive；andsofarasmysuccourextends，sofarhaveIpromotedthehappinessofmyfellow-creatures。Butifweexamineallthequestions，thatcomebeforeanytribunalofjustice，weshallfind，that，consideringeachcaseapart，itwou’dasoftenbeaninstanceofhumanitytodecidecontrarytothelawsofjusticeasconformablethem。Judgestakefromapoormantogivetoarich；theybestowonthedissolutethelabouroftheindustrious；andputintothehandsoftheviciousthemeansofharmingboththemselvesandothers。Thewholescheme，however，oflawandjusticeisadvantageoustothesociety；and`twaswithaviewtothisadvantage，thatmen，bytheirvoluntaryconventions，establish’dit。Afteritisonceestablish’dbytheseconventions，itisnaturallyattendedwithastrongsentimentofmorals；whichcanproceedfromnothingbutoursympathywiththeinterestsofsociety。Weneednootherexplicationofthatesteem，whichattendssuchofthenaturalvirtues，ashaveatendencytothepublicgood。Imustfartheradd，thatthereareseveralcircumstances，whichrenderthishypothesismuchmoreprobablewithregardtothenaturalthantheartificialvirtues。`Tiscertainthattheimaginationismoreaffectedbywhatisparticular，thanbywhatisgeneral；andthatthesentimentsarealwaysmov’dwithdifficulty，wheretheirobjectsare，inanydegree，looseandundetermin’d:Noweveryparticularactofjusticeisnotbeneficialtosociety，butthewholeschemeorsystem:Anditmaynot，perhaps，beanyindividualperson。forwhomweareconcern’d，whoreceivesbenefitfromjustice，butthewholesocietyalike。Onthecontrary，everyparticularactofgenerosity，orreliefoftheindustriousandindigent，isbeneficial；andisbeneficialtoaparticularperson，whoisnotundeservingofit。Tismorenatural，therefore，tothink，thatthetendenciesofthelattervirtuewillaffectoursentiments，andcommandourapprobation，thanthoseoftheformer；andtherefore，sincewefind，thattheapprobationoftheformerarisesfromtheirtendencies，wemayascribe，withbetterreason，thesamecausetotheapprobationofthelatter。Inanynumberofsimilareffects，ifacausecanbediscover’dforone，weoughttoextendthatcausetoalltheothereffects，whichcanbeaccountedforbyit:Butmuchmore，iftheseothereffectsbeattendedwithpeculiarcircumstances，whichfacilitatetheoperationofthatcause。
BeforeIproceedfarther，Imustobservetworemarkablecircumstancesinthisaffair，whichmayseemobjectionstothepresentsystem。Thefirstmaybethusexplain’d。Whenanyquality，orcharacter，hasatendencytothegoodofmankind，wearepleas’dwithit，andapproveofit；becauseitpresentsthelivelyideaofpleasure；whichideaaffectsusbysympathy，andisitselfakindofpleasure。Butasthissympathyisveryvariable，itmaybethought。thatoursentimentsofmoralsmustadmitofallthesamevariations。Wesympathizemorewithpersonscontiguoustous，thanwithpersonsremotefromus:Withouracquaintance，thanwithstrangers:Withourcountrymen，thanwithforeigners。Butnotwithstandingthisvariationofoursympathy，wegivethesameapprobationtothesamemoralqualitiesinChinaasinEngland。Theyappearequallyvirtuous，andrecommendthemselvesequallytotheesteemofajudiciousspectator。Thesympathyvarieswithoutavariationinouresteem。Ouresteem，therefore，proceedsnotfromsympathy。
TothisIanswer:Theapprobationofmoralqualitiesmostcertainlyisnotderiv’dfromreason，oranycomparisonofideas；butproceedsentirelyfromamoraltaste，andfromcertainsentimentsofpleasureordisgust，whichariseuponthecontemplationandviewofparticularqualitiesorcharacters。Now`tisevident，thatthosesentiments，whence-evertheyarederiv’d，mustvaryaccordingtothedistanceorcontiguityoftheobjects；norcanIfeelthesamelivelypleasurefromthevirtuesofaperson，wholiv’dinGreecetwothousandyearsago，thatIfeelfromthevirtuesofafamiliarfriendandacquaintance。YetIdonotsay，thatIesteemtheonemorethantheother:Andtherefore，ifthevariationofthesentiment，withoutavariationoftheesteem，beanobjection，itmusthaveequalforceagainsteveryothersystem，asagainstthatofsympathy。Buttoconsiderthemattera-right，ithasnoforceatall；and`tistheeasiestmatterintheworldtoaccountforit。Oursituation，withregardbothtopersonsandthings，isincontinualfluctuation；andaman，thatliesatadistancefromus，may，inalittletime，becomeafamiliaracquaintance。Besides，everyparticularmanhasapeculiarpositionwithregardtoothers；and`tisimpossiblewecou’deverconversetogetheronanyreasonableterms，wereeachofustoconsidercharactersandpersons，onlyastheyappearfromhispeculiarpointofview。Inorder，therefore，topreventthosecontinualcontradictions，andarriveatamorestablejudgmentofthings，wefixonsomesteadyandgeneralpointsofview；andalways，inourthoughts，placeourselvesinthem，whatevermaybeourpresentsituation。Inlikemanner，externalbeautyisdetermin’dmerelybypleasure；and`tisevident，abeautifulcountenancecannotgivesomuchpleasure，whenseenatthedistanceoftwentypaces，aswhenitisbroughtnearerus。Wesaynot，however，thatitappearstouslessbeautiful:Becauseweknowwhateffectitwillhaveinsuchaposition，andbythatreflectionwecorrectitsmomentaryappearance。
Ingeneral，allsentimentsofblameorpraisearevariable，accordingtooursituationofnearnessorremoteness，withregardtothepersonblam’dorprais’d，andaccordingtothepresentdispositionofourmind。Butthesevariationsweregardnotinourgeneraldecision，butstillapplythetermsexpressiveofourlikingordislike，inthesamemanner，asifweremain’dinonepointofview。Experiencesoonteachesusthismethodofcorrectingoursentiments，oratleast，ofcorrectingourlanguage，wherethesentimentsaremorestubbornandinalterable。Ourservant，ifdiligentandfaithful，mayexcitestrongersentimentsofloveandkindnessthanMarcusBrutus，asrepresentedinhistory；butwesaynotuponthataccount，thattheformercharacterismorelaudablethanthelatter。Weknow，thatwerewetoapproachequallyneartothatrenown’dpatriot，hewou’dcommandamuchhigherdegreeofaffectionandadmiration。Suchcorrectionsarecommonwithregardtoallthesenses；andindeed`twereimpossiblewecou’devermakeuseoflanguage，orcommunicateoursentimentstooneanother，didwenotcorrectthemomentaryappearancesofthings，andoverlookourpresentsituation。
`Tisthereforefromtheinfluenceofcharactersandqualities，uponthosewhohaveanintercoursewithanyperson，thatweblameorpraisehim。Weconsidernotwhetherthepersons，affectedbythequalities，beouracquaintanceorstrangers，countrymenorforeigners。Nay，weover-lookourowninterestinthosegeneraljudgments；andblamenotamanforopposingusinanyofourpretensions，whenhisowninterestisparticularlyconcern’d。Wemakeallowanceforacertaindegreeofselfishnessinmen；becauseweknowittobeinseparablefromhumannature，andinherentinourframeandconstitution。Bythisreflectionwecorrectthosesentimentsofblame，whichsonaturallyariseuponanyopposition。
Buthoweverthegeneralprincipleofourblameorpraisemaybecorrectedbythoseotherprinciples，`tiscertain，theyarenotaltogetherefficacious，nordoourpassionsoftencorrespondentirelytothepresenttheory。`Tisseldommenheartilylovewhatliesatadistancefromthem，andwhatnowayredoundstotheirparticularbenefit；as`tisnolessraretomeetwithpersons，whocanpardonanotheranyoppositionhemakestotheirinterest，howeverjustifiablethatoppositionmaybebythegeneralrulesofmorality。Herewearecontentedwithsaying，thatreasonrequiressuchanImpartialconduct，butthat`tisseldomwecanbringourselvestoit，andthatourpassionsdonotreadilyfollowthedeterminationofourjudgment。Thislanguagewillbeeasilyunderstood，ifweconsiderwhatweformerlysaidconcerningthatreason，whichisabletoopposeourpassion；andwhichwehavefoundtobenothingbutageneralcalmdeterminationofthepassions，foundedonsomedistantvieworreflection。Whenweformourjudgmentsofpersons，merelyfromthetendencyoftheircharacterstoourownbenefit，ortothatofourfriends，wefindsomanycontradictionstooursentimentsinsocietyandconversation，andsuchanuncertaintyfromtheincessantchangesofoursituation，thatweseeksomeotherstandardofmeritanddemerit，whichmaynotadmitofsogreatvariation。Beingthusloosen’dfromourfirststation，wecannotafterwardsfixourselvessocommodiouslybyanymeansasbyasympathywiththose，whohaveanycommercewiththepersonweconsider。Thisisfarfrombeingaslivelyaswhenourowninterestisconcern’d，orthatofourparticularfriends；norhasitsuchaninfluenceonourloveandhatred:Butbeingequallyconformabletoourcalmandgeneralprinciples，`tissaidtohaveanequalauthorityoverourreason，andtocommandourjudgmentandopinion。Weblameequallyabadaction，whichwereadofinhistory，withoneperform’dinourneighbourhoodt’otherday:Themeaningofwhichis，thatweknowfromreflection，thattheformeractionwou’dexciteasstrongsentimentsofdisapprobationasthelatter，wereitplac’dinthesameposition。
Inowproceedtothesecondremarkablecircumstance，whichIpropos’dtotakenoticeof。Whereapersonispossess’dofacharacter，thatinitsnaturaltendencyisbeneficialtosociety，weesteemhimvirtuous，andaredelightedwiththeviewofhischaracter，eventho’particularaccidentspreventitsoperation，andincapacitatehimfrombeingserviceabletohisfriendsandcountry。Virtueinragsisstillvirtue；andthelove，whichitprocures，attendsamanintoadungeonordesart，wherethevirtuecannolongerbeexertedinaction，andislosttoalltheworld。Nowthismaybeesteem’danobjectiontothepresentsystem。Sympathyinterestsusinthegoodofmankind；andifsympathywerethesourceofouresteemforvirtue，thatsentimentofapprobationcou’donlytakeplace，wherethevirtueactuallyattain’ditsend，andwasbeneficialtomankind。Whereitfailsofitsend，`tisonlyanimperfectmeans；andthereforecanneveracquireanymeritfromthatend。Thegoodnessofanendcanbestowameritonsuchmeansaloneasarecompleat，andactuallyproducetheend。
Tothiswemayreply，thatwhereanyobject，inallitsparts，isfittedtoattainanyagreeableend，itnaturallygivesuspleasure，andisesteem’dbeautiful，eventho’someexternalcircumstancesbewantingtorenderitaltogethereffectual。`Tissufficientifeverythingbecompleatintheobjectitself。Ahouse，thatiscontriv’dwithgreatjudgmentforallthecommoditiesoflife，pleasesusuponthataccount；tho’perhapswearesensible，thatnoonewilleverdwellinit。Afertilesoil，andahappyclimate，delightusbyareflectiononthehappinesswhichtheywou’daffordtheinhabitants，tho’atpresentthecountrybedesartanduninhabited。Aman，whoselimbsandshapepromisestrengthandactivity，isesteem’dhandsome，tho’condemn’dtoperpetualimprisonment。Theimaginationhasasetofpassionsbelongingtoit，uponwhichoursentimentsofbeautymuchdepend。Thesepassionsaremov’dbydegreesoflivelinessandstrength，whichareinferiortobelief，andindependentoftherealexistenceoftheirobjects。Whereacharacteris，ineveryrespect，fittedtobebeneficialtosociety，theimaginationpasseseasilyfromthecausetotheeffect，withoutconsideringthattherearestrnsomecircumstanceswantingtorenderthecauseacompleatone。Generalrulescreateaspeciesofprobability，whichsometimesinfluencesthejudgment，andalwaystheimagination。
`Tistrue，whenthecauseiscompleat，andagooddispositionisattendedwithgoodfortune，whichrendersitreallybeneficialtosociety，itgivesastrongerpleasuretothespectator，andisattendedwithamorelivelysympathy。Wearemoreaffectedbyit；andyetwedonotsaythatitismorevirtuous，orthatweesteemitmore。Weknow，thatanalterationoffortunemayrenderthebenevolentdispositionentirelyimpotent；andthereforeweseparate，asmuchaspossible，thefortunefromthedisposition。Thecaseisthesame，aswhenwecorrectthedifferentsentimentsofvirtue，whichproceedfromitsdifferentdistancesfromourselves。Thepassionsdonotalwaysfollowourcorrections；butthesecorrectionsservesufficientlytoregulateourabstractnotions，andarealoneregarded，whenwepronounceingeneralconcerningthedegreesofviceandvirtue。
`Tisobserv’dbycritics，thatallwordsorsentences，whicharedifficulttothepronunciation，aredisagreeabletotheear。Thereisnodifference，whetheramanhearthempronounc’d，orreadthemsilentlytohimself。WhenIrunoverabookwithmyeye，IImagineIhearitall；andalso，bytheforceofimagination，enterintotheuneasiness，whichthedeliveryofitwou’dgivethespeaker。Theuneasinessisnotreal；butassuchacompositionofwordshasanaturaltendencytoproduceit，thisissufficienttoaffectthemindwithapainfulsentiment，andrenderthediscourseharshanddisagreeable。Tisasimilarcase，whereanyrealqualityis，byaccidentalcircumstances，render’dimpotent，andisdepriv’dofitsnaturalinfluenceonsociety。
Upontheseprincipleswemayeasilyremoveanycontradiction，whichmayappeartobebetwixttheextensivesympathy，onwhichoursentimentsofvirtuedepend，andthatlimitedgenerositywhichIhavefrequentlyobserv’dtobenaturaltomen，andwhichjusticeandpropertysuppose，accordingtotheprecedentreasoning。Mysympathywithanothermaygivemethesentimentofpainanddisapprobation，whenanyobjectispresented，thathasatendencytogivehimuneasiness；tho’Imaynotbewillingtosacrificeanythingofmyowninterest，orcrossanyofmypassions，forhissatisfaction。Ahousemaydispleasemebybeingill-contriv’dfortheconvenienceoftheowner；andyetImayrefusetogiveashillingtowardstherebuildingofit。Sentimentsmusttouchtheheart，tomakethemcontroulourpassions:Buttheyneednotextendbeyondtheimagination，tomaketheminfluenceourtaste。Whenabuildingseemsclumsyandtotteringtotheeye，itisuglyanddisagreeable；tho’webefullyassur’dofthesolidityoftheworkmanship。`Tisakindoffear，whichcausesthissentimentofdisapprobation；butthepassionisnotthesamewiththatwhichwefeel，whenoblig’dtostandunderawall，thatwereallythinktotteringandinsecure。Theseemingtendenciesofobjectsaffectthemind:Andtheemotionstheyexciteareofalikespecieswiththose，whichproceedfromtherealconsequencesofobjects，buttheirfeelingisdifferent。Nay，theseemotionsaresodifferentintheirfeeling，thattheymayoftenbecontrary，withoutdestroyingeachother；aswhenthefortificationsofacitybelongingtoanenemyareesteem’dbeautifuluponaccountoftheirstrength，tho’wecou’dwishthattheywereentirelydestroy’d。Theimaginationadherestothegeneralviewsofthings，anddistinguishesthefeelingstheyproduce，fromthosewhicharisefromourparticularandmomentarysituation。
Ifweexaminethepanegyricsthatarecommonlymadeofgreatmen，weshallfind，thatmostofthequalities，whichareattributedtothem，maybedividedintotwokinds，viz。suchasmakethemperformtheirpartinsociety；andsuchasrenderthemserviceabletothemselves，andenablethemtopromotetheirowninterest。Theirprudence，temperance，frugality，industry，assiduity，enterprize，dexterity，arecelebrated，aswellastheirgenerosityandhumanity。Ifweevergiveanindulgencetoanyquality，thatdisablesamanfrommakingafigureinlife，`tistothatofindolence，whichisnotsuppos’dtodepriveoneofhispartsandcapacity，butonlysuspendstheirexercise；andthatwithoutanyinconveniencetothepersonhimself，since`tis，insomemeasure，fromhisownchoice。Yetindolenceisalwaysallow’dtobeafault，andaverygreatone，ifextreme:Nordoaman’sfriendseveracknowledgehimtobesubjecttoit，butinordertosavehischaracterinmorematerialarticles。Hecou’dmakeafigure，saythey，ifhepleas’dtogiveapplication:Hisunderstandingissound，hisconceptionquick，andhismemorytenacious；buthehatesbusiness，andisindifferentabouthisfortune。Andthisamansometimesmaymakeevenasubjectofvanity；tho’withtheairofconfessingafault:Becausehemaythink，thathisincapacityforbusinessimpliesmuchmorenoblequalities；suchasaphilosophicalspirit，afinetaste，adelicatewit，orarelishforpleasureandsociety。Buttakeanyothercase:Supposeaquality，thatwithoutbeinganindicationofanyothergoodqualities，incapacitatesamanalwaysforbusiness，andisdestructivetohisinterest；suchasablunderingunderstanding，andawrongjudgmentofeverythinginlife；inconstancyandirresolution；orawantofaddressinthemanagementofmenandbusiness:Theseareallallow’dtobeimperfectionsinacharacter；andmanymenwou’dratheracknowledgethegreatestcrimes，thanhaveitsuspected，thattheyare，inanydegree，subjecttothem。
`Tisveryhappy，inourphilosophicalresearches，whenwefindthesamephaenomenondiversifiedbyavarietyofcircumstances；andbydiscoveringwhatiscommonamongthem，canthebetterassureourselvesofthetruthofanyhypothesiswemaymakeuseoftoexplainit。Werenothingesteem’dvirtuebutwhatwerebeneficialtosociety，Iampersuaded，thattheforegoingexplicationofthemoralsenseoughtstilltobereceiv’d，andthatuponsufficientevidence:Butthisevidencemustgrowuponus，whenwefindotherkindsofvirtue，whichwillnotadmitofanyexplicationexceptfromthathypothesis。Hereisaman，whoisnotremarkablydefectiveinhissocialqualities；butwhatprincipallyrecommendshimishisdexterityinbusiness，bywhichhehasextricatedhimselffromthegreatestdifficulties，andconductedthemostdelicateaffairswithasingularaddressandprudence。Ifindanesteemforhimimmediatelytoariseinme:Hiscompanyisasatisfactiontome；andbeforeIhaveanyfartheracquaintancewithhim，Iwou’dratherdohimaservicethananother，whosecharacterisineveryotherrespectequal，butisdeficientinthatparticular。Inthiscase，thequalitiesthatpleasemeareallconsider’dasusefultotheperson，andashavingatendencytopromotehisinterestandsatisfaction。Theyareonlyregardedasmeanstoanend，andpleasemeinproportiontotheirfitnessforthatend。Theend，therefore，mustbeagreeabletome。Butwhatmakestheendagreeable？Thepersonisastranger:Iamnowayinterestedinhim，norlieunderanyobligationtohim:Hishappinessconcernsnotme，fartherthanthehappinessofeveryhuman，andindeedofeverysensiblecreature:Thatis，itaffectsmeonlybysympathy。Fromthatprinciple，wheneverIdiscoverhishappinessandgood，whetherinitscausesoreffects，Ientersodeeplyintoit，thatitgivesmeasensibleemotion。Theappearanceofqualities，thathaveatendencytopromoteit，haveanagreeableeffectuponmyimagination，andcommandmyloveandesteem。
Thistheorymayservetoexplain，whythesamequalities，inallcases，producebothprideandlove，humilityandhatred；andthesamemanisalwaysvirtuousorvicious，accomplish’dordespicabletoothers，whoissotohimself。Aperson，inwhomwediscoveranypassionorhabit，whichoriginallyisonlyincommodioustohimself，becomesalwaysdisagreeabletous，merelyonitsaccount；asontheotherhand，onewhosecharacterisonlydangerousanddisagreeabletoothers，canneverbesatisfiedwithhimself，aslongasheissensibleofthatdisadvantage。Noristhisobservableonlywithregardtocharactersandmanners，butmayberemark’deveninthemostminutecircumstances。Aviolentcoughinanothergivesusuneasiness；tho’initselfitdoesnotintheleastaffectus。Amanwillbemortified，ifyoutellhimhehasastinkingbreath；tho’`tisevidentlynoannoyancetohimself。Ourfancyeasilychangesitssituation；andeithersurveyingourselvesasweappeartoothers，orconsideringothersastheyfeelthemselves，weenter，bythatmeans，intosentiments，whichnowaybelongtous，andinwhichnothingbutsympathyisabletointerestus。Andthissympathywesometimescarrysofar，aseventobedispleas’dwithaqualitycommodioustous，merelybecauseitdispleasesothers，andmakesusdisagreeableintheireyes；tho’perhapswenevercanhaveanyinterestinrenderingourselvesagreeabletothem。
Therehavebeenmanysystemsofmoralityadvanc’dbyphilosophersinallages；butiftheyarestrictlyexamin’d，theymaybereduc’dtotwo，whichalonemeritourattention。Moralgoodandevilarecertainlydistinguish’dbyoursentiments，notbyreason:Butthesesentimentsmayariseeitherfromthemerespeciesorappearanceofcharactersandpassions，orfromreflectionsontheirtendencytothehappinessofmankind，andofparticularpersons。Myopinionis，thatboththesecausesareintermix’dinourjudgmentsofmorals；afterthesamemannerastheyareinourdecisionsconcerningmostkindsofexternalbeauty:Tho’Iamalsoofopinion，thatreflectionsonthetendenciesofactionshavebyfarthegreatestinfluence，anddetermineallthegreatlinesofourduty。Thereare，however，instances，incasesoflessmoment，whereinthisimmediatetasteorsentimentproducesourapprobation。Wit，andacertaineasyanddisengag’dbehaviour，arequalitiesimmediatelyagreeabletoothers，andcommandtheirloveandesteem。Someofthesequalitiesproducesatisfactioninothersbyparticularoriginalprinciplesofhumannature，whichcannotbeaccountedfor:Othersmayberesolv’dintoprinciples，whicharemoregeneral。Thiswillbestappearuponaparticularenquiry。
Assomequalitiesacquiretheirmeritfromtheirbeingimmediatelyagreeabletoothers，withoutanytendencytopublicinterest；sosomearedenominatedvirtuousfromtheirbeingimmediatelyagreeabletothepersonhimself，whopossessesthem。Eachofthepassionsandoperationsofthemindhasaparticularfeeling，whichmustbeeitheragreeableordisagreeable。Thefirstisvirtuous，thesecondvicious。Thisparticularfeelingconstitutestheverynatureofthepassion；andthereforeneedsnotbeaccountedfor。
Buthoweverdirectlythedistinctionofviceandvirtuemayseemtoflowfromtheimmediatepleasureoruneasiness，whichparticularqualitiescausetoourselvesorothers；`tiseasytoobserve，thatithasalsoaconsiderabledependenceontheprincipleofsympathysoofteninsistedon。Weapproveofaperson，whoispossess’dofqualitiesimmediatelyagreeabletothose，withwhomhehasanycommerce；tho’perhapsweourselvesneverreap’danypleasurefromthem。Wealsoapproveofone，whoispossess’dofqualities，thatareimmediatelyagreeabletohimself；tho’theybeofnoservicetoanymortal。Toaccountforthiswemusthaverecoursetotheforegoingprinciples。
Thus，totakeageneralreviewofthepresenthypothesis:Everyqualityofthemindisdenominatedvirtuous，whichgivespleasurebythemeresurvey；aseveryquality，whichproducespain，iscall’dvicious。Thispleasureandthispainmayarisefromfourdifferentsources。Forwereapapleasurefromtheviewofacharacter，whichisnaturallyfittedtobeusefultoothers，ortothepersonhimself，orwhichisagreeabletoothers，ortothepersonhimself。Onemay，perhaps，besurpriz’d。thatamidstalltheseinterestsandpleasures，weshou’dforgetourown，whichtouchussonearlyoneveryotheroccasion。Butweshalleasilysatisfyourselvesonthishead，whenweconsider，thateveryparticularpersonspleasureandinterestbeingdifferent，`tisimpossiblemencou’deveragreeintheirsentimentsandjudgments，unlesstheychosesomecommonpointofview，fromwhichtheymightsurveytheirobject，andwhichmightcauseittoappearthesametoallofthem。Nowinjudgingofcharacters，theonlyinterestorpleasure，whichappearsthesametoeveryspectator，isthatofthepersonhimself，whosecharacterisexamin’d；orthatofpersons，whohaveaconnexionwithhim。Andtho’suchinterestsandpleasurestouchusmorefaintlythanourown，yetbeingmoreconstantanduniversal，theycounter-ballancethelattereveninpractice，andarealoneadmittedinspeculationasthestandardofvirtueandmorality。Theyaloneproducethatparticularfeelingorsentiment，onwhichmoraldistinctionsdepend。
Astothegoodorilldesertofvirtueorvice，`tisanevidentconsequenceofthesentimentsofpleasureoruneasiness。Thesesentimentsproduceloveorhatred；andloveorhatred，bytheoriginalconstitutionofhumanpassion，isattendedwithbenevolenceoranger；thatis，withadesireofmakinghappythepersonwelove，andmiserablethepersonwehate。Wehavetreatedofthismorefullyonanotheroccasion。
OfgreatnessofmindItmaynowbepropertoillustratethisgeneralsystemofmorals，byapplyingittoparticularinstancesofvirtueandvice，andshewinghowtheirmeritordemeritarisesfromthefoursourceshereexplain’d。Weshallbeginwithexaminingthepassionsofprideandhumility，andshallconsidertheviceorvirtuethatliesintheirexcessesorjustproportion。Anexcessiveprideoroverweaningconceitofourselvesisalwaysesteem’dvicious，andisuniversallyhated；asmodesty，orajustsenseofourweakness，isesteem’dvirtuous，andprocuresthegood-willofevery-one。Ofthefoursourcesofmoraldistinctions，thisistobeascrib’dtothethird；viz，theimmediateagreeablenessanddisagreeablenessofaqualitytoothers，withoutanyreflectionsonthetendencyofthatquality。
Inordertoprovethis，wemusthaverecoursetotwoprinciples，whichareveryconspicuousinhumannature。Thefirstoftheseisthesympathy，andcommunicationofsentimentsandpassionsabove-mention’d。Socloseandintimateisthecorrespondenceofhumansouls，thatnosooneranypersonapproachesme，thanhediffusesonmeallhisopinions，anddrawsalongmyjudgmentinagreaterorlesserdegree。Andtho’，onmanyoccasions，mysympathywithhimgoesnotsofarasentirelytochangemysentiments，andwayofthinking；yetitseldomissoweakasnottodisturbtheeasycourseofmythought，andgiveanauthoritytothatopinion，whichisrecommendedtomebyhisassentandapprobation。NorisitanywaymaterialuponwhatsubjectheandIemployourthoughts。Whetherwejudgeofanindifferentperson，orofmyowncharacter，mysympathygivesequalforcetohisdecision:Andevenhissentimentsofhisownmeritmakemeconsiderhiminthesamelight，inwhichheregardshimself。
Thisprincipleofsympathyisofsopowerfulandinsinuatinganature，thatitentersintomostofoursentimentsandpassions，andoftentakesplaceundertheappearanceofitscontrary。For`tisremarkable，thatwhenapersonopposesmeinanything，whichIamstronglybentupon，androuzesupmypassionbycontradiction，Ihavealwaysadegreeofsympathywithhim，nordoesmycommotionproceedfromanyotherorigin。Wemayhereobserveanevidentconflictorrencounterofoppositeprinciplesandpassions。Ontheonesidethereisthatpassionorsentiment，whichisnaturaltome；and`tisobservable，thatthestrongerthispassionis，thegreateristhecommotion。Theremustalsobesomepassionorsentimentontheotherside；andthispassioncanproceedfromnothingbutsympathy。Thesentimentsofotherscanneveraffectus，butbybecoming，insomemeasure，ourown；inwhichcasetheyoperateuponus，byopposingandencreasingourpassions，intheverysamemanner，asiftheyhadbeenoriginallyderiv’dfromourowntemperanddisposition。Whiletheyremainconceal’dinthemindsofothers，theycanneverhaveaninfluenceuponus:Andevenwhentheyareknown，iftheywentnofartherthantheimagination，orconception；thatfacultyissoaccustom’dtoobjectsofeverydifferentkind，thatamereidea，tho’contrarytooursentimentsandinclinations，wou’dneveralonebeabletoaffectus。
ThesecondprincipleIshalltakenoticeofisthatofcomparison，orthevariationofourjudgmentsconcerningobjects，accordingtotheproportiontheybeartothosewithwhichwecomparethem。Wejudgemore，ofobjectsbycomparison，thanbytheirintrinsicworthandvalue；andregardeverythingasmean，whensetinoppositiontowhatissuperiorofthesamekind。Butnocomparisonismoreobviousthanthatwithourselves；andhenceitisthatonalloccasionsittakesplace，andmixeswithmostofourpassions。Thiskindofcomparisonisdirectlycontrarytosympathyinitsoperation，aswehaveobserv’dintreatingofcompassionandmalice。(18)Inallkindsofcomparisonanobjectmakesusalwaysreceivefromanother，towhichitiscornpar’d，asensationcontrarytowhatarisesfromitselfinitsdirectandimmediatesurvey。Thedirectsurveyofanother’spleasurenaturallygivesuspleasure；andthereforeproducespain，whencompar’dwithourown。Hispain，consider’dinitself，ispainful；butaugmentstheideaofourownhappiness，andgivesuspleasure。
Sincethenthoseprinciplesofsympathy，andacomparisonwithourselves，aredirectlycontrary，itmaybeworthwhiletoconsider，whatgeneralrulescanbeform’d，besidetheparticulartemperoftheperson，fortheprevalenceoftheoneortheother。SupposeIamnowinsafetyatland，andwou’dwillinglyreapsomepleasurefromthisconsideration:Imustthinkonthemiserableconditionofthosewhoareatseainastorm，andmustendeavourtorenderthisideaasstrongandlivelyaspossible，inordertomakememoresensibleofmyownhappiness。ButwhateverpainsImaytake，thecomparisonwillneverhaveanequalefficacy，asiftostbyatempest，andindangereverymomentofperishingonarockorsand-bank。Butsupposethisideatobecomestillmorelively。Supposetheshiptobedrivensonearme，thatIcanperceivedistinctlythehorror，paintedonthecountenanceoftheseamenandpassengers，heartheirlamentablecries，seethedearestfriendsgivetheirlastadieu，orembracewitharesolutiontoperishineachothersarms:Nomanhassosavageaheartastoreapanypleasurefromsuchaspectacle，orwithstandthemotionsofthetenderestcompassionandsympathy。`Tisevident，therefore，thereisamediuminthiscase；andthatiftheideabetoofeint，ithasnoinfluencebycomparison；andontheotherhand，ifitbetoostrong，itoperatesonusentirelybysympathy，whichisthecontrarytocomparison。Sympathybeingtheconversionofanideaintoanimpression，demandsagreaterforceandvivacityintheideathanisrequisitetocomparison。
Allthisiseasilyappliedtothepresentsubject。Wesinkverymuchinourowneyes，wheninthepresenceofagreatman，oroneofasuperiorgenius；andthishumilitymakesaconsiderableingredientinthatrespect，whichwepayoursuperiors，accordingtoour(19)foregoingreasoningsonthatpassion。Sometimesevenenvyandhatredarisefromthecomparison；butinthegreatestpartofmen，itrestsatrespectandesteem。Assympathyhassuchapowerfulinfluenceonthehumanmind，itcausespridetohave，insomemeasure，thesameeffectasmerit；andbymakingusenterintothoseelevatedsentiments，whichtheproudmanentertainsofhimself，presentsthatcomparison，whichissomortifyinganddisagreeable。Ourjudgmentdoesnotentirelyaccompanyhimintheflatteringconceit，inwhichhepleaseshimself；butstillissoshakenastoreceivetheideaitpresents，andtogiveitaninfluenceabovethelooseconceptionsoftheimagination。Aman，who，inanidlehumour，wou’dformanotionofapersonofameritverymuchsuperiortohisown，wou’dnotbemortifiedbythatfiction:Butwhenaman，whomwearereallypersuadedtobeofinferiormerit，ispresentedtous；ifweobserveinhimanyextraordinarydegreeofprideandself-conceit；thefirmpersuasionhehasofhisownmerit，takesholdoftheimagination，anddiminishesusinourowneyes，inthesamemanner，asifhewerereallypossess’dofallthegoodqualitieswhichhesoliberallyattributestohimself。Ourideaisherepreciselyinthatmedium，whichisrequisitetomakeitoperateonusbycomparison。Wereitaccompaniedwithbelief，anddidthepersonappeartohavethesamemerit，whichheassumestohimself，itwou’dhaveacontraryeffect，andwou’doperateonusbysympathy。Theinfluenceofthatprinciplewou’dthenbesuperiortothatofcomparison，contrarytowhathappenswheretheperson’smeritseemsbelowhispretensions。
Thenecessaryconsequenceoftheseprinciplesis，thatpride，oranover-weaningconceitofourselves，mustbevicious；sinceitcausesuneasinessinallmen，andpresentsthemeverymomentwithadisagreeablecomparison。`Tisatriteobservationinphilosophy，andevenincommonlifeandconversation，that`tisourownpride，whichmakesussomuchdispleas’dwiththeprideofotherpeople；andthatvanitybecomesinsupportabletousmerelybecausewearevain。Thegaynaturallyassociatethemselveswiththegay，andtheamorouswiththeamorous:Buttheproudnevercanenduretheproud，andratherseekthecompanyofthosewhoareofanoppositedisposition。Asweare，allofus，proudinsomedegree，prideisuniversallyblam’dandcondemn’dbyallmankind；ashavinganaturaltendencytocauseuneasinessinothersbymeansofcomparison。Andthiseffectmustfollowthemorenaturally，thatthose，whohaveanill-groundedconceitofthemselves，areforevermakingthosecomparisons，norhavetheyanyothermethodofsupportingtheirvanity。Amanofsenseandmeritispleas’dwithhimself，independentofallforeignconsiderations:Butafoolmustalwaysfindsomeperson，thatismorefoolish，inordertokeephimselfingoodhumourwithhisownpartsandunderstanding。
Buttho’anover-weaningconceitofourownmeritbeviciousanddisagreeable，nothingcanbemorelaudable，thantohaveavalueforourselves，wherewereallyhavequalitiesthatarevaluable。Theutilityandadvantageofanyqualitytoourselvesisasourceofvirtue，aswellasitsagreeablenesstoothers；and`tiscertain，thatnothingismoreusefultousintheconductoflife，thanaduedegreeofpride，whichmakesussensibleofourownmerit，andgivesusaconfidenceandassuranceinallourprojectsandenterprizes。Whatevercapacityanyonemaybeendow’dwith，`tisentirelyuselesstohim，ifhebenotacquaintedwithit，andformnotdesignssuitabletoit。`Tisrequisiteonalloccasionstoknowourownforce；andwereitallowabletoerroneitherside，`twou’dbemoreadvantageoustoover-rateourmerit，thantoformideasofit，belowitsjuststandard。Fortunecommonlyfavourstheboldandenterprizing；andnothinginspiresuswithmoreboldnessthanagoodopinionofourselves。
Addtothis，thattho’pride，orself-applause，besometimesdisagreeabletoothers，`tisalwaysagreeabletoourselves；asontheotherhand，modesty，tho’itgivespleasuretoeveryone，whoobservesit，producesoftenuneasinessinthepersonendow’dwithit。Nowithasbeenobserv’d，thatourownsensationsdeterminetheviceandvirtueofanyquality，aswellasthosesensations，whichitmayexciteinothers。
Thusself-satisfactionandvanitymaynotonlybeallowable，butrequisiteinacharacter。Tis，however，certain，thatgood-breedinganddecencyrequirethatweshou’davoidallsignsandexpressions，whichtenddirectlytoshowthatpassion。Wehave，allofus，awonderfulpartialityforourselves，andwerewealwaystogiveventtooursentimentsinthisparticular，weshou’dmutuallycausethegreatestindignationineachother，notonlybytheimmediatepresenceofsodisagreeableasubjectofcomparison，butalsobythecontrarietyofourjudgments。Inlikemanner，therefore，asweestablishthelawsofnature，inordertosecurepropertyinsociety，andpreventtheoppositionofself-interest；weestablishtherulesofgood-breeding，inordertopreventtheoppositionofmen’spride，andrenderconversationagreeableandinoffensive。Nothingismoredisagreeablethanaman’sover-weaningconceitofhimself:Everyonealmosthasastrongpropensitytothisvice:Noonecanwelldistinguishinhimselfbetwixttheviceandvirtue，orbecertain，thathisesteemofhisownmeritiswell-founded:Forthesereasons，alldirectexpressionsofthispassionarecondemn’d；nordowemakeanyexceptiontothisruleinfavourofmenofsenseandmerit。Theyarenotallow’dtodothemselvesjusticeopenly，inwords，nomorethanotherpeople；andeveniftheyshowareserveandsecretdoubtindoingthemselvesjusticeintheirownthoughts，theywillbemoreapplauded。Thatimpertinent，andalmostuniversalpropensityofmen，toover-valuethemselves，hasgivenussuchaprejudiceagainstself-applause，thatweareapttocondemnit，byageneralrule，whereverwemeetwithit；and`tiswithsomedifficultywegiveaprivilegetomenofsense，evenintheirmostsecretthoughts。Atleast，itmustbeown’d，thatsomedisguiseinthisparticularisabsolutelyrequisite；andthatifweharbourprideinourbreasts，wemustcarryafairoutside，andhavetheappearanceofmodestyandmutualdeferenceinallourconductandbehaviour。Wemust，oneveryoccasion，bereadytopreferotherstoourselves；totreatthemwithakindofdeference，eventho’theybeourequals；toseemalwaysthelowestandleastinthecompany，wherewearenotverymuchdistinguish’dabovethem:Andifweobservetheserulesinourconduct，menwillhavemoreindulgenceforoursecretsentiments，whenwediscovertheminanobliquemanner。
Ibelievenoone，whohasanypracticeoftheworld，andcanpenetrateintotheinwardsentimentsofmen，willassert，thatthehumility，whichgood-breedinganddecencyrequireofus，goesbeyondtheoutside，orthatathoroughsincerityinthisparticularisesteem’darealpartofourduty。Onthecontrary，wemayobserve，thatagenuineandheartypride，orself-esteem，ifwellconceal’dandwellfounded，isessentialtothecharacterofamanofhonour，andthatthereisnoqualityofthemind，whichismoreindispensiblyrequisitetoprocuretheesteemandapprobationofmankind。Therearecertaindeferencesandmutualsubmissions，whichcustomrequiresofthedifferentranksofmentowardseachother；andwhoeverexceedsinthisparticular，ifthro’interest，isaccus’dofmeanness；ifthro’ignorance，ofsimplicity。Tisnecessary，therefore，toknowourrankandstationintheworld，whetheritbefix’dbyourbirth，fortune，employments，talentsorreputation。Tisnecessarytofeelthesentimentandpassionofprideinconformitytoit，andtoregulateouractionsaccordingly。Andshou’ditbesaid，thatprudencemaysufficetoregulateouractionsinthisparticular，withoutanyrealpride，Iwou’dobserve，thatheretheobjectofprudenceistoconformouractionstothegeneralusageandcustom；and，that`tisimpossiblethosetacitairsofsuperiorityshou’deverhavebeenestablish’dandauthoriz’dbycustom，unlessmenweregenerallyproud，andunlessthatpassionweregenerallyapprov’d，whenwell-grounded。
Ifwepassfromcommonlifeandconversationtohistory，thisreasoningacquiresnewforce，whenweobserve，thatallthosegreatactionsandsentiments，whichhavebecometheadmirationofmankind，arefoundedonnothingbutprideandself-esteem。Go，saysAlexandertheGreattohissoldiers，whentheyrefus’dtofollowhimtotheIndies，gotellyourcountrymen，thatyouleftAlexandercornpleatingtheconquestoftheworld。Thispassagewasalwaysparticularlyadmir’dbytheprinceofConde，aswelearnfromStEvremond。
`Alexander，’saidthatprince，`abandon’dbyhissoldiers，amongbarbarians，notyetfullysubdu’d，feltinhimselfsuchadignityofrightandofempire，thathecou’dnotbelieveitpossibleanyonecou’drefusetoobeyhim。WhetherinEuropeorinAsia，amongGreeksorPersians，allwasindifferenttohim:Whereverhefoundmen，hefanciedhefoundsubjects。’
Ingeneralwemayobserve，thatwhateverwecallheroicvirtue，andadmireunderthecharacterofgreatnessandelevationofmind，iseithernothingbutasteadyandwellestablishedprideandself-esteem，orpartakeslargelyofthatpassion。Courage，intrepidity，ambition，loveofglory，magnanimity，andalltheothershiningvirtuesofthatkind，haveplainlyastrongmixtureofself-esteeminthem，andderiveagreatpartoftheirmeritfromthatorigin。Accordinglywefind，thatmanyreligiousdeclaimersdecrythosevirtuesaspurelypaganandnatural，andrepresenttoustheexcellencyoftheChristianreligion，whichplaceshumilityintherankofvirtues，andcorrectsthejudgmentoftheworld，andevenofphilosophers，whosogenerallyadmirealltheeffortsofprideandambition。Whetherthisvirtueofhumilityhasbeenrightlyunderstood，Ishallnotpretendtodetermine。Iamcontentwiththeconcession，thattheworldnaturallyesteemsawell-regulatedpride，whichsecretlyanimatesourconduct，withoutbreakingoutintosuchindecentexpressionsofvanity，asmanyoffendthevanityofothers。
Themeritofprideorself-esteemisderiv’dfromtwocircumstances，viz，itsutilityanditsagreeablenesstoourselves；bywhichitcapacitatesusforbusiness，and，atthesametime，givesusanimmediatesatisfaction。Whenitgoesbeyonditsjustbounds，itlosesthefirstadvantage，andevenbecomesprejudicial；whichisthereasonwhywecondemnanextravagantprideandambition，howeverregulatedbythedecorumsofgood-breedingandpoliteness。Butassuchapassionisstillagreeable，andconveysanelevatedandsublimesensationtotheperson，whoisactuatedbyit，thesympathywiththatsatisfactiondiminishesconsiderablytheblame，whichnaturallyattendsitsdangerousinfluenceonhisconductandbehaviour。Accordinglywemayobserve，thatanexcessivecourageandmagnanimity，especiallywhenitdisplaysitselfunderthefrownsoffortune，contributesinagreatmeasure，tothecharacterofahero，andwillrenderapersontheadmirationofposterity；atthesametime，thatitruinshisaffairs，andleadshimintodangersanddifficulties，withwhichotherwisehewou’dneverhavebeenacquainted。
Heroism，ormilitaryglory，ismuchadmir’dbythegeneralityofmankind。Theyconsideritasthemostsublimekindofmerit。Menofcoolreflectionarenotsosanguineintheirpraisesofit。Theinfiniteconfusionsanddisorder，whichithascaus’dintheworld，diminishmuchofitsmeritintheireyes。Whentheywou’dopposethepopularnotionsonthishead，theyalwayspaintouttheevils，whichthissuppos’dvirtuehasproduc’dinhumansociety；thesubversionofempires，thedevastationofprovinces，thesackofcities。Aslongasthesearepresenttous，wearemoreinclin’dtohatethanadmiretheambitionofheroes。Butwhenwefixourviewonthepersonhimself，whoistheauthorofallthismischief，thereissomethingsodazzlinginhischaracter，themerecontemplationofitsoelevatesthemind，thatwecannotrefuseitouradmiration。Thepain，whichwereceivefromitstendencytotheprejudiceofsociety，isover-power’dbyastrongerandmoreimmediatesympathy。
Thusourexplicationofthemeritordemerit，whichattendsthedegreesofprideorself-esteem，mayserveasastrongargumentfortheprecedinghypothesis，byshewingtheeffectsofthoseprinciplesaboveexplain’dinallthevariationsofourjudgmentsconcerningthatpassion。Norwillthisreasoningbeadvantageoustousonlybyshewing，thatthedistinctionofviceandvirtuearisesfromthefourprinciplesoftheadvantageandofthepleasureofthepersonhimself，andofothers:Butmayalsoaffordusastrongproofofsomeunder-partsofthathypothesis。
Noone，whodulyconsidersofthismatter，willmakeanyscrupleofallowing，thatanypieceofrn-breeding，oranyexpressionofprideandhaughtiness，isdispleasingtous，merelybecauseitshocksourownpride，andleadsusbysympathyintoacomparison，whichcausesthedisagreeablepassionofhumility。Nowasaninsolenceofthiskindisblam’deveninapersonwhohasalwaysbeenciviltoourselvesinparticular；nay，inone，whosenameisonlyknowntousinhistory；itfollows，thatourdisapprobationproceedsfromasympathywithothers，andfromthereflection，thatsuchacharacterishighlydispleasingandodioustoeveryone，whoconversesorhasanyintercoursewiththepersonpossestofit。Wesympathizewiththosepeopleintheiruneasiness；andastheiruneasinessproceedsinpartfromasympathywiththepersonwhoinsultsthem，wemayhereobserveadoublereboundofthesympathy；whichisaprincipleverysimilartowhatwehaveobserv’d。(20)
OfgoodnessandbenevolenceHavingthusexplain’dtheoriginofthatpraiseandapprobation，whichattendseverythingwecallgreatinhumanaffections；wenowproceedtogiveanaccountoftheirgoodness，andshewwhenceitsmeritisderiv’d。
Whenexperiencehasoncegivenusacompetentknow。ledgeofhumanaffairs，andhastaughtustheproportiontheybeartohumanpassion，weperceive，thatthegenerosityofmenisverylimited，andthatitseldomextendsbeyondtheirfriendsandfamily，or，atmost，beyondtheirnativecountry。Beingthusacquaintedwiththenatureofman，weexpectnotanyimpossibilitiesfromhim；butconfineourviewtothatnarrowcircle，inwhichanypersonmoves，inordertoformajudgmentofhismoralcharacter。Whenthenaturaltendencyofhispassionsleadshimtobeserviceableandusefulwithinhissphere，weapproveofhischaracter，andlovehisperson，byasympathywiththesentimentsofthose，whohaveamoreparticularconnexionwithhim。Wearequicklyoblig’dtoforgetourowninterestinourjudgmentsofthiskind，byreasonoftheperpetualcontradictions，wemeetwithinsocietyandconversation，frompersonsthatarenotplac’dinthesamesituation，andhavenotthesameinterestwithourselves。Theonlypointofview，inwhichoursentimentsconcurwiththoseofothers，is，whenweconsiderthetendencyofanypassiontotheadvantageorharmofthose，whohaveanyimmediateconnexionorintercoursewiththepersonpossess’dofit。Andtho’thisadvantageorharmbeoftenveryremotefromourselves，yetsometimes`tisverynearus，andinterestsusstronglybysympathy。Thisconcernwereadilyextendtoothercases，thatareresembling；andwhentheseareveryremote，oursympathyisproportionablyweaker，andourpraiseorblamefainterandmoredoubtful。Thecaseisherethesameasinourjudgmentsconcerningexternalbodies。Allobjectsseemtodiminishbytheirdistance:Buttho’theappearanceofobjectstooursensesbetheoriginalstandard，bywhichwejudgeofthem，yetwedonotsay，thattheyactuallydiminishbythedistance；butcorrectingtheappearancebyreflection，arriveatamoreconstantandestablishedjudgmentconcerningthem。Inlikemanner，tho’sympathybemuchfainterthanourconcernforourselves，andasympathywithpersonsremotefromusmuchfainterthanthatwithpersonsnearandcontiguous；yetweneglectallthesedifferencesinourcalmjudgmentsconcerningthecharactersofmen。Besides，thatweourselvesoftenchangeoursituationinthisparticular，weeverydaymeetwithpersons，whoareinadifferentsituationfromourselves，andwhocou’dneverconversewithusonanyreasonableterms，werewetoremainconstantlyinthatsituationandpointofview，whichispeculiartous。Theintercourseofsentiments，therefore，insocietyandconversation，makesusformsomegeneralinalterablestandard，bywhichwemayapproveordisapproveofcharactersandmanners。Andtho’theheartdoesnotalwaystakepartwiththosegeneralnotions，orregulateitsloveandhatredbythem，yetaretheysufficientfordiscourse，andserveallourpurposesmcompany，inthepulpit，onthetheatre，andintheschools。
Fromtheseprincipleswemayeasilyaccountforthatmerit，whichiscommonlyascrib’dtogenerosity，humanity，compassion，gratitude，friendship，fidelity，zeal，disinterestedness，liberality，andallthoseotherqualities，whichformthecharacterofgoodandbenevolent。Apropensitytothetenderpassionsmakesamanagreeableandusefulinallthepartsoflife；andgivesajustdirectiontoallhisotherquailties，whichotherwisemaybecomeprejudicialtosociety。Courageandambition，whennotregulatedbybenevolence，arefitonlytomakeatyrantandpublicrobber。Tisthesamecasewithjudgmentandcapacity，andallthequalitiesofthatkind。Theyareindifferentinthemselvestotheinterestsofsociety，andhaveatendencytothegoodorillofmankind，accordingastheyaredirectedbytheseotherpassions。
AsLoveisimmediatelyagreeabletotheperson，whoisactuatedbyit，andhatredimmediatelydisagreeable；thismayalsobeaconsiderablereason，whywepraiseallthepassionsthatpartakeoftheformer，andblameallthosethathaveanyconsiderableshareofthelatter。Tiscertainweareinfinitelytouch’dwithatendersentiment，aswellaswithagreatone。Thetearsnaturallystartinoureyesattheconceptionofit；norcanweforbeargivingaloosetothesametendernesstowardsthepersonwhoexertsit。Allthisseemstomeaproof，thatourapprobationhas，inthosecases，anorigindifferentfromtheprospectofutilityandadvantage，eithertoourselvesorothers。Towhichwemayadd，thatmennaturally，withoutreflection，approveofthatcharacter，whichismostliketheirown。Themanofamilddispositionandtenderaffections，informinganotionofthemostperfectvirtue，mixesinitmoreofbenevolenceandhumanity，thanthemanofcourageandenterprize，whonaturallylooksuponacertainelevationofmindasthemostaccomplish’dcharacter。Thismustevidentlyproceedfromanimmediatesympathy，whichmenhavewithcharacterssimilartotheirown。Theyenterwithmorewarmthintosuchsentiments，andfeelmoresensiblythepleasure，whicharisesfromthem。
`Tisremarkable，thatnothingtouchesamanofhumanitymorethananyinstanceofextraordinarydelicacyinloveorfriendship，whereapersonisattentivetothesmallestconcernsofhisfriend，andiswillingtosacrificetothemthemostconsiderableinterestofhisown。Suchdelicacieshavelittleinfluenceonsociety；becausetheymakeusregardthegreatesttrifles:Buttheyarethemoreengaging，themoreminutetheconcernis，andareaproofofthehighestmeritinanyone，whoiscapableofthem。Thepassionsaresocontagious，thattheypasswiththegreatestfacilityfromonepersontoanother，andproducecorrespondentmovementsinallhumanbreasts。Wherefriendshipappearsinverysignalinstances，myheartcatchesthesamepassion，andiswarm’dbythosewarmsentiments，thatdisplaythemselvesbeforeme。Suchagreeablemovementsmustgivemeanaffectiontoeveryonethatexcitesthem。Thisisthecasewitheverythingthatisagreeableinanyperson。Thetransitionfrompleasuretoloveiseasy:Butthetransitionmustherebestillmoreeasy；sincetheagreeablesentiment，whichisexcitedbysympathy，isloveitself；andthereisnothingrequir’dbuttochangetheobject。
Hencethepeculiarmeritofbenevolenceinallitsshapesandappearances。Henceevenitsweaknessesarevirtuousandamiable；andaperson，whosegriefuponthelossofafriendwereexcessive，wou’dbeesteem’duponthataccount。Histendernessbestowsamerit，asitdoesapleasure，onhismelancholy。
Wearenot，however，toimagine，thatalltheangrypassionsarevicious，tho’theyaredisagreeable。Thereisacertainindulgenceduetohumannatureinthisrespect。AngerandhatredarepassionsinherentinOurveryframeandconstitutions。Thewantofthem，onsomeoccasions，mayevenbeaproofofweaknessandimbecillity。Andwheretheyappearonlyinalowdegree，wenotonlyexcusethembecausetheyarenatural；butevenbestowourapplausesonthem，becausetheyareinferiortowhatappearsinthegreatestpartofmankind。
Wheretheseangrypassionsriseuptocruelty，theyformthemostdetestedofallvices。Allthepityandconcernwhichwehaveforthemiserablesufferersbythisvice，turnsagainstthepersonguiltyofit，andproducesastrongerhatredthanwearesensibleofonanyotheroccasion。Evenwhentheviceofinhumanityrisesnottothisextremedegree，oursentimentsconcerningitareverymuchinfluenc’dbyreflectionsontheharmthatresultsfromit。Andwemayobserveingeneral，thatifwecanfindanyqualityinaperson，whichrendershimincommodioustothose，wholiveandconversewithhim，wealwaysallowittobeafaultorblemish，withoutanyfartherexamination。Ontheotherhand，whenweenumeratethegoodqualitiesofanyperson。wealwaysmentionthosepartsofhischaracter，whichrenderhimasafecompanion，aneasyfriend，agentlemaster，anagreeablehusband，oranindulgentfather。Weconsiderhimwithallhisrelationsinsociety；andloveorhatehim，accordingasheaffectsthose，whohaveanyimmediateintercoursewithhim。And`tisamostcertainrule，thatiftherebenorelationoflife，inwhichIcou’dnotwishtostandtoaparticularperson，hischaractermustsofarbeallow’dtobeperfect。Ifhebeaslittlewantingtohimselfastoothers，hischaracterisentirelyperfect。Thisistheultimatetestofmeritandvirtue。
