PartFirst。
OftheGeneralCharacteristicsofHumanNatureSectionI。
OfthequestionrelatingtotheStateofNatureNaturalproductionsaregenerallyformedbydegrees。
Vegetablesgrowfromatendershoot，andanimalsfromaninfantstate。Thelatterbeingdestinedtoact，extendtheiroperationsastheirpowersincrease:theyexhibitaprogress，inwhattheyperform，aswellasinthefacultiestheyacquire。Thisprogressinthecaseofmaniscontinuedtoagreaterextentthaninthatofanyotheranimal。Notonlytheindividualadvancesfrominfancytomanhood，butthespeciesitselffromrudenesstocivilization。Hencethesupposeddepartureofmankindfromthestateoftheirnature；henceourconjecturesanddifferentopinionsofwhatmanmusthavebeeninthefirstageofhisbeing。Thepoet，thehistorian，andthemoralist，frequentlyalludetothisancienttime；andundertheemblemsofgold，orofiron，representacondition，andamanneroflife，fromwhichmankindhaveeitherdegenerated，oronwhichtheyhavegreatlyimproved。Oneithersupposition，thefirststateofournaturemusthavebornenoresemblancetowhatmenhaveexhibitedinanysubsequentperiod；historicalmonuments，evenoftheearliestdate，aretobeconsideredasnovelties；andthemostcommonestablishmentsofhumansocietyaretobeclassedamongtheincroachmentswhichfraud，oppression，orabusyinvention，havemadeuponthereignofnature，bywhichthechiefofourgrievancesorblessingswereequallywith-held。Amongthewriterswhohaveattemptedtodistinguish，inthehumancharacter，itsoriginalqualities，andtopointoutthelimitsbetweennatureandart，somehaverepresentedmankindintheirfirstcondition，aspossessedofmereanimalsensibility，withoutanyexerciseofthefacultiesthatrenderthemsuperiortothebrutes，withoutanypoliticalunion，withoutanymeansofexplainingtheirsentiments，andevenwithoutpossessinganyoftheapprehensionsandpassionswhichthevoiceandthegesturearesowellfittedtoexpress。Othershavemadethestateofnaturetoconsistinperpetualwars，kindledbycompetitionfordominionandinterest，whereeveryindividualhadaseparatequarrelwithhiskind，andwherethepresenceofafellow-creaturewasthesignalofbattle。
Thedesireoflayingthefoundationofafavouritesystem，orafondexpectation，perhaps，thatwemaybeabletopenetratethesecretsofnature，totheverysourceofexistence，have，onthissubject，ledtomanyfruitlessinquiries，andgivenrisetomanywildsuppositions。Amongthevariousqualitieswhichmankindpossess，weselectoneorafewparticularsonwhichtoestablishatheory，andinframingouraccountofwhatmanwasinsomeimaginarystateofnature，weoverlookwhathehasalwaysappearedwithinthereachofourownobservation，andintherecordsofhistory。
Ineveryotherinstance，however，thenaturalhistorianthinkshimselfobligedtocollectfacts，nottoofferconjectures。Whenhetreatsofanyparticularspeciesofanimals，hesupposes，thattheirpresentdispositionsandinstinctsarethesametheyoriginallyhad，andthattheirpresentmanneroflifeisacontinuanceoftheirfirstdestination。Headmits，thathisknowledgeofthematerialsystemoftheworldconsistsinacollectionoffacts，oratmost，ingeneraltenetsderivedfromparticularobservationsandexperiments。Itisonlyinwhatrelatestohimself，andinmattersthemostimportant，andthemosteasilyknown，thathesubstituteshypothesisinsteadofreality，andconfoundstheprovincesofimaginationandreason，ofpoetryandscience。
Butwithoutenteringanyfartheronquestionseitherinmoralorphysicalsubjects，relatingtothemannerortotheoriginofourknowledge；withoutanydisparagementtothatsubtiltywhichwouldanalyzeeverysentiment，andtraceeverymodeofbeingtoitssource；itmaybesafelyaffirmed，thatthecharacterofman，ashenowexists，thatthelawsofthisanimalandintellectualsystem，onwhichhishappinessnowdepends，deserveourprincipalstudy；andthatgeneralprinciplesrelatingtothis，oranyothersubject，areusefulonlysofarastheyarefoundedonjustobservation，andleadtotheknowledgeofimportantconsequences，orsofarastheyenableustoactwithsuccesswhenwewouldapplyeithertheintellectualorthephysicalpowersofnature，tothegreatpurposesofhumanlife。
Ifboththeearliestandthelatestaccountscollectedfromeveryquarteroftheearth，representmankindasassembledintroopsandcompanies；andtheindividualalwaysjoinedbyaffectiontooneparty，whileheispossiblyopposedtoanother；
employedintheexerciseofrecollectionandforesight；inclinedtocommunicatehisownsentiments，andtobemadeacquaintedwiththoseofothers；thesefactsmustbeadmittedasthefoundationofallourreasoningrelativetoman。Hismixeddispositiontofriendshiporenmity，hisreason，hisuseoflanguageandarticulatesounds，liketheshapeandtheerectpositionofhisbody，aretobeconsideredassomanyattributesofhisnature:
theyaretoberetainedinhisdescription，asthewingandthepawareinthatoftheeagleandthelion，andasdifferentdegreesoffierceness，vigilance，timidity，orspeed，aremadetooccupyaplaceinthenaturalhistoryofdifferentanimals。
Ifthequestionbeput，Whatthemindofmancouldperform，whenlefttoitself，andwithouttheaidofanyforeigndirection？wearetolookforouranswerinthehistoryofmankind。Particularexperimentswhichhavebeenfoundsousefulinestablishingtheprinciplesofothersciences，couldprobably，onthissubject，teachusnothingimportant，ornew:wearetotakethehistoryofeveryactivebeingfromhisconductinthesituationtowhichheisformed，notfromhisappearanceinanyforcedoruncommoncondition；awildmantherefore，caughtinthewoods，wherehehadalwayslivedapartfromhisspecies，isasingularinstance，notaspecimenofanygeneralcharacter。Astheanatomyofaneyewhichhadneverreceivedtheimpressionsoflight，orthatofanearwhichhadneverfelttheimpulseofsounds，wouldprobablyexhibitdefectsintheverystructureoftheorgansthemselves，arisingfromtheirnotbeingappliedtotheirproperfunctions；soanyparticularcaseofthissortwouldonlyshewinwhatdegreethepowersofapprehensionandsentimentcouldexistwheretheyhadnotbeenemployed，andwhatwouldbethedefectsandimbecilitiesofaheartinwhichtheemotionsthatpertaintosocietyhadneverbeenfelt。
Mankindaretobetakeningroupes，astheyhavealwayssubsisted。Thehistoryoftheindividualisbutadetailofthesentimentsandthoughtshehasentertainedintheviewofhisspecies:andeveryexperimentrelativetothissubjectshouldbemadewithentiresocieties，notwithsinglemen。Wehaveeveryreason，however，tobelieve，thatinthecaseofsuchanexperimentmade，weshallsuppose，withacolonyofchildrentransplantedfromthenursery，andlefttoformasocietyapart，untaught，andundisciplined，weshouldonlyhavethesamethingsrepeated，which，insomanydifferentpartsoftheearth，havebeentransactedalready。Themembersofourlittlesocietywouldfeedandsleep，wouldherdtogetherandplay，wouldhavealanguageoftheirown，wouldquarrelanddivide，wouldbetooneanotherthemostimportantobjectsofthescene，and，intheardouroftheirfriendshipsandcompetitions，wouldoverlooktheirpersonaldanger，andsuspendthecareoftheirself-preservation。Hasnotthehumanracebeenplantedlikethecolonyinquestion？Whohasdirectedtheircourse？whoseinstructionhavetheyheard？orwhoseexamplehavetheyfollowed？
Nature，therefore，weshallpresume，havinggiventoeveryanimalitsmodeofexistence，itsdispositionsandmanneroflife，hasdealtequallywiththoseofthehumanrace；andthenaturalhistorianwhowouldcollectthepropertiesofthisspecies，mayfillupeveryarticlenow，aswellashecouldhavedoneinanyformerage。yetonepropertybywhichmanisdistinguished，hasbeensometimesoverlookedintheaccountofhisnature，orhasonlyservedtomisleadourattention。Inotherclassesofanimals，theindividualadvancesfrominfancytoageormaturity；andheattains，inthecompassofasinglelife，toalltheperfectionhisnaturecanreach:but，inthehumankind，thespecieshasaprogressaswellastheindividual；theybuildineverysubsequentageonfoundationsformerlylaid；and，inasuccessionofyears，tendtoaperfectionintheapplicationoftheirfaculties，towhichtheaidoflongexperienceisrequired，andtowhichmanygenerationsmusthavecombinedtheirendeavours。Weobservetheprogresstheyhavemade；wedistinctlyenumeratemanyofitssteps；wecantracethembacktoadistantantiquityofwhichnorecordremains，noranymonumentispreserved，toinformuswhatweretheopeningsofthiswonderfulscene。Theconsequenceis，thatinsteadofattendingtothecharacterofourspecies，wheretheparticularsarevouchedbythesurestauthority，weendeavourtotraceitthroughagesandscenesunknown；and，insteadofsupposingthatthebeginningofourstorywasnearlyofapiecewiththesequel，wethinkourselveswarrantedtorejecteverycircumstanceofourpresentconditionandframe，asadventitious，andforeigntoournature。
Theprogressofmankindfromasupposedstateofanimalsensibility，totheattainmentofreason，totheuseoflanguage，andtothehabitofsociety，hasbeenaccordinglypaintedwithaforceofimagination，anditsstepshavebeenmarkedwithaboldnessofinvention，thatwouldtemptustoadmit，amongthematerialsofhistory，thesuggestionsoffancy，andtoreceive，perhaps，asthemodelofournatureinitsoriginalstate，someoftheanimalswhoseshapehasthegreatestresemblancetoours。(1*)
Itwouldberidiculoustoaffirm，asadiscovery，thatthespeciesofthehorsewasprobablyneverthesamewiththatofthelion；yet，inoppositiontowhathasdroppedfromthepensofeminentwriters，weareobligedtoobserve，thatmenhavealwaysappearedamonganimalsadistinctandasuperiorrace；thatneitherthepossessionofsimilarorgans，northeapproximationofshape，northeuseofthehand，(2*)northecontinuedintercoursewiththissovereignartist，hasenabledanyotherspeciestoblendtheirnatureortheirinventionswithhis；thatinhisrudeststate，heisfoundtobeabovethem；andinhisgreatestdegeneracy，neverdescendstotheirlevel。Heis，inshort，amanineverycondition；andwecanlearnnothingofhisnaturefromtheanalogyofotheranimals。Ifwewouldknowhim，wemustattendtohimself，tothecourseofhislife，andthetenorofhisconduct。Withhimthesocietyappearstobeasoldastheindividual，andtheuseofthetongueasuniversalasthatofthehandorthefoot。Iftherewasatimeinwhichhehadhisacquaintancewithhisownspeciestomake，andhisfacultiestoacquire，itisatimeofwhichwehavenorecord，andinrelationtowhichouropinionscanservenopurpose，andaresupportedbynoevidence。
Weareoftentemptedintotheseboundlessregionsofignoranceorconjecture，byafancywhichdelightsincreatingratherthaninmerelyretainingtheformswhicharepresentedbeforeit:wearethedupesofasubtilty，whichpromisestosupplyeverydefectofourknowledge，and，byfillingupafewblanksinthestoryofnature，pretendstoconductourapprehensionnearertothesourceofexistence。Onthecreditofafewobservations，weareapttopresume，thatthesecretmaysoonbelaidopen，andthatwhatistermedwisdominnature，maybereferredtotheoperationofphysicalpowers。Weforgetthatphysicalpowers，employedinsuccession，andcombinedtoasalutarypurpose，constitutethoseveryproofsofdesignfromwhichweinfertheexistenceofGod；andthatthistruthbeingonceadmitted，wearenolongertosearchforthesourceofexistence；wecanonlycollectthelawswhichtheauthorofnaturehasestablished；andinourlatestaswellasourearliestdiscoveries，onlycometoperceiveamodeofcreationorprovidencebeforeunknown。
Wespeakofartasdistinguishedfromnature；butartitselfisnaturaltoman。Heisinsomemeasuretheartificerofhisownframe，aswellashisfortune，andisdestined，fromthefirstageofhisbeing，toinventandcontrive。Heappliesthesametalentstoavarietyofpurposes，andactsnearlythesamepartinverydifferentscenes。Hewouldbealwaysimprovingonhissubject，andhecarriesthisintentionwhere-everhemoves，throughthestreetsofthepopulouscity，orthewildsoftheforest。Whileheappearsequallyfittedtoeverycondition，heisuponthisaccountunabletosettleinany。Atonceobstinateandfickle，hecomplainsofinnovations，andisneversatedwithnovelty。Heisperpetuallybusiedinreformations，andiscontinuallyweddedtohiserrors。Ifhedwellinacave，hewouldimproveitintoacottage；ifhehasalreadybuilt，hewouldstillbuildtoagreaterextent。Buthedoesnotproposetomakerapidandhastytransitions；hisstepsareprogressiveandslow；
andhisforce，likethepowerofaspring，silentlypressesoneveryresistance；aneffectissometimesproducedbeforethecauseisperceived；andwithallhistalentforprojects，hisworkisoftenaccomplishedbeforetheplanisdevised。Itappears，perhaps，equallydifficulttoretardortoquickenhispace；iftheprojectorcomplainheistardy，themoralistthinkshimunstable。andwhetherhismotionsberapidorslow，thescenesofhumanaffairsperpetuallychangeinhismanagement:hisemblemisapassingstream，notastagnatingpool。Wemaydesiretodirecthisloveofimprovementtoitsproperobject，wemaywishforstabilityofconduct；butwemistakehumannature，ifwewishforaterminationoflabour，orasceneofrepose。
Theoccupationsofmen，ineverycondition，bespeaktheirfreedomofchoice，theirvariousopinions，andthemultiplicityofwantsbywhichtheyareurged:buttheyenjoy，orendure，withasensibility，oraphlegm，whicharenearlythesameineverysituation。TheypossesstheshoresoftheCaspian，ortheAtlantic，byadifferenttenure，butwithequalease。Ontheonetheyarefixedtothesoil，andseemtobeformedforsettlement，andtheaccommodationofcities:Thenamestheybestowonanation，andonitsterritory，arethesame。Ontheothertheyaremereanimalsofpassage，preparedtoroamonthefaceoftheearth，andwiththeirherds，insearchofnewpastureandfavourableseasons，tofollowthesuninhisannualcourse。
Manfindshislodgmentalikeinthecave，thecottage，andthepalace；andhissubsistenceequallyinthewoods，inthedairy，orthefarm。Heassumesthedistinctionoftitles，equipage，anddress；hedevisesregularsystemsofgovernment，andacomplicatedbodyoflaws:or，nakedinthewoods，hasnobadgeofsuperioritybutthestrengthofhislimbsandthesagacityofhismind；noruleofconductbutchoice；notiewithhisfellow-creaturesbutaffection，theloveofcompany，andthedesireofsafety。Capableofagreatvarietyofarts，yetdependentonnoneinparticularforthepreservationofhisbeing；towhateverlengthhehascarriedhisartifice，thereheseemstoenjoytheconvenienciesthatsuithisnature，andtohavefoundtheconditiontowhichheisdestined。ThetreewhichanAmerican，onthebanksoftheOroonoko，(3*)haschosentoclimbfortheretreat，andthelodgementofhisfamily，istohimaconvenientdwelling。Thesopha，thevaulteddome，andthecolonade，donotmoreeffectuallycontenttheirnativeinhabitant。
Ifweareaskedtherefore，Wherethestateofnatureistobefound？wemayanswer，Itishere；anditmattersnotwhetherweareunderstoodtospeakintheislandofGreatBritain，attheCapeofGoodHope，ortheStraitsofMagellan。Whilethisactivebeingisinthetrainofemployinghistalents，andofoperatingonthesubjectsaroundhim，allsituationsareequallynatural。
Ifwearetold，Thatvice，atleast，iscontrarytonature；wemayanswer，Itisworse；itisfollyandwretchedness。Butifnatureisonlyopposedtoart，inwhatsituationofthehumanracearethefootstepsofartunknown？Intheconditionofthesavage，aswellasinthatofthecitizen，aremanyproofsofhumaninvention；andineitherisnotanypermanentstation，butamerestagethroughwhichthistravellingbeingisdestinedtopass。Ifthepalacebeunnatural，thecottageissonoless；andthehighestrefinementsofpoliticalandmoralapprehension，arenotmoreartificialintheirkind，thanthefirstoperationsofsentimentandreason。
Ifweadmitthatmanissusceptibleofimprovement，andhasinhimselfaprincipleofprogression，andadesireofperfection，itappearsimpropertosay，thathehasquittedthestateofhisnature，whenhehasbeguntoproceed；orthathefindsastationforwhichhewasnotintended，while，likeotheranimals，heonlyfollowsthedisposition，andemploysthepowersthatnaturehasgiven。
Thelatesteffortsofhumaninventionarebutacontinuationofcertaindeviceswhichwerepractisedintheearliestagesoftheworld，andintherudeststateofmankind。Whatthesavageprojects，orobserves，intheforest，arethestepswhichlednations，moreadvanced，fromthearchitectureofthecottagetothatofthepalace，andconductedthehumanmindfromtheperceptionsofsense，tothegeneralconclusionsofscience。
Acknowledgeddefectsaretomanineveryconditionmatterofdislike。Ignoranceandimbecilityareobjectsofcontempt:
penetrationandconductgiveeminence，andprocureesteem。
Whithershouldhisfeelingsandapprehensionsonthesesubjectsleadhim？Toaprogress，nodoubt，inwhichthesavage，aswellasthephilosopher，isengaged；inwhichtheyhavemadedifferentadvances，butinwhichtheirendsarethesame。TheadmirationCiceroentertainedforliterature，eloquence，andcivilaccomplishments，wasnotmorerealthanthatofaScythianforsuchameasureofsimilarendowmentsashisownapprehensioncouldreach。’WereItoboast，’saysaTartarprince，(4*)’itwouldbeofthatwisdomIhavereceivedfromGod。Foras，ontheonehand，Iyieldtononeintheconductofwar，inthedispositionofarmies，whetherofhorseoroffoot，andindirectingthemovementsofgreatorsmallbodies；so，ontheother，Ihavemytalentinwriting，inferiorperhapsonlytothosewhoinhabitthegreatcitiesofPersiaorIndia。Ofothernations，unknowntome，Idonotspeak。’
Manmaymistaketheobjectsofhispursuit；hemaymisapplyhisindustry，andmisplacehisimprovements。Ifunderasenseofsuchpossibleerrors，hewouldfindastandardbywhichtojudgeofhisownproceedings，andarriveatthebeststateofhisnature，hecannotfinditperhapsinthepracticeofanyindividual，orofanynationwhatever；noteveninthesenseofthemajority，ortheprevailingopinionofhiskind。Hemustlookforitinthebestconceptionsofhisunderstanding，inthebestmovementsofhisheart；hemustthencediscoverwhatistheperfectionandthehappinessofwhichheiscapable。Hewillfind，onthescrutiny，thattheproperstateofhisnature，takeninthissense，isnotaconditionfromwhichmankindareforeverremoved，butonetowhichtheymaynowattain；notpriortotheexerciseoftheirfaculties，butprocuredbytheirjustapplication。
Ofallthetermsthatweemployintreatingofhumanaffairs，thoseofnaturalandunnaturalaretheleastdeterminateintheirmeaning。Opposedtoaffectation，frowardness，oranyotherdefectofthetemperofcharacter，thenaturalisanepithetofpraise；
butemployedtospecifyaconductwhichproceedsfromthenatureofman，canservetodistinguishnothing:foralltheactionsofmenareequallytheresultoftheirnature。Atmost，thislanguagecanonlyrefertothegeneralandprevailingsenseorpracticeofmankind；andthepurposeofeveryimportantinquiryonthissubjectmaybeservedbytheuseofalanguageequallyfamiliarandmoreprecise。Whatisjust，orunjust？Whatishappy，orwretched，inthemannersofmen？What，intheirvarioussituations，isfavourableoradversetotheiramiablequalities？
arequestionstowhichwemayexpectasatisfactoryanswer:andwhatevermayhavebeentheoriginalstateofourspecies，itisofmoreimportancetoknowtheconditiontowhichweourselvesshouldaspire，thanthatwhichourancestorsmaybesupposedtohaveleft。
SectionII。
OfthePrinciplesofSelf-preservationIfinhumannaturetherearequalitiesbywhichitisdistinguishedfromeveryotherpartoftheanimalcreation，menarethemselvesindifferentclimatesandindifferentagesgreatlydiversified。Sofarasweareabletoaccountforthisdiversityonprinciplestithermoralorphysical，weperformataskofgreatcuriosityorsignalutility。Itappearsnecessary，however，thatweattendtotheuniversalqualitiesofournature，beforeweregarditsvarieties，orattempttoexplaindifferencesconsistingintheunequalpossessionorapplicationofdispositionsandpowersthatareinsomemeasurecommontoallmankind。
Man，liketheotheranimals，hascertaininstinctivepropensities，which，priortotheperceptionofpleasureorpain，andpriortotheexperienceofwhatisperniciousoruseful，leadhimtoperformmanyfunctionsofnaturerelativetohimselfandtohisfellow-creatures。Hehasonesetofdispositionswhichrefertohisanimalpreservation，andtothecontinuanceofhisrace；anotherwhichleadtosociety，andbyinlistinghimonthesideofonetribeorcommunity，frequentlyengagehiminwarandcontentionwiththerestofmankind。Hispowersofdiscernment，orhisintellectualfaculties，which，undertheappellationofreason，aredistinguishedfromtheanalogousendowmentsofotheranimals，refertotheobjectsaroundhim，eitherastheyaresubjectsofmereknowledge，orastheyaresubjectsofapprobationorcensure。Heisformednotonlytoknow，butlikewisetoadmireandtocontemn；andtheseproceedingsofhismindhaveaprincipalreferencetohisowncharacter，andtothatofhisfellow-creatures，asbeingthesubjectsonwhichheischieflyconcernedtodistinguishwhatisrightfromwhatiswrong。Heenjoyshisfelicitylikewiseoncertainfixedanddeterminateconditions；andeitherasanindividualapart，orasamemberofcivilsociety，musttakeaparticularcourseinordertoreaptheadvantagesofhisnature。Heis，withal，inaveryhighdegreesusceptibleofhabits；andcan，byforbearanceorexercise，sofarweaken，confirm，orevendiversifyhistalents，andhisdispositions，astoappear，inagreatmeasure，thearbiterofhisownrankinnature，andtheauthorofallthevarietieswhichareexhibitedintheactualhistoryofhisspecies。Theuniversalcharacteristics，inthemeantime，towhichwehavenowreferred，must，whenwewouldtreatofanypartofthishistory，constitutethefirstsubjectofourattention；
andtheyrequirenotonlytobeenumerated，buttobedistinctlyconsidered。
Thedispositionswhichrefertothepreservationoftheindividual，whiletheycontinuetooperateinthemannerofinstinctivedesires，arenearlythesameinmanthattheyareintheotheranimals:butinhimtheyaresoonerorlatercombinedwithreflectionandforesight；theygiverisetohisapprehensionsonthesubjectofproperty，andmakehimacquaintedwiththatobjectofcarewhichhecallshisinterest。Withouttheinstinctswhichteachthebeaverandthesquirrel，theantandthebee，tomakeuptheirlittlehoardsforwinter，atfirstimprovident，and，wherenoimmediateobjectofpassionisnear，addictedtosloth，hebecomes，inprocessoftime，thegreatstoremasteramonganimals。Hefindsinaprovisionofwealth，whichheisprobablynevertoemploy，anobjectofhisgreatestsolicitude，andtheprincipalidolofhismind。Heapprehendsarelationbetweenhispersonandhisproperty，whichrenderswhathecallshisowninamannerapartofhimself，aconstituentofhisrank，hiscondition，andhischaracter，inwhich，independentofanyrealenjoymenthemaybefortunateorunhappy；and，independentofanypersonalmerit，hemaybeanobjectofconsiderationorneglect；andinwhichhemaybewoundedandinjured，whilehispersonissafe，andeverywantofhisnaturecompletelysupplied。
Intheseapprehensions，whileotherpassionsonlyoperateoccasionally，theinterestedfindtheobjectoftheirordinarycares；theirmotivetothepracticeofmechanicandcommercialarts；theirtemptationtotrespassonthelawsofjustice；and，whenextremelycorrupted，thepriceoftheirprostitutions，andthestandardoftheiropinionsonthesubjectofgoodandofevil。Underthisinfluence，theywouldenter，ifnotrestrainedbythelawsofcivilsociety，onasceneofviolenceormeanness，whichwouldexhibitourspecies，byturns，underanaspectmoreterribleandodious，ormorevileandcontemptible，thanthatofanyanimalwhichinheritstheearth。
Althoughtheconsiderationofinterestisfoundedontheexperienceofanimalwantsanddesires，itsobjectisnottogratifyanyparticularappetite，buttosecurethemeansofgratifyingall；anditimposesfrequentlyarestraintontheverydesiresfromwhichitarose，morepowerfulandmoreseverethanthoseofreligionorduty。Itarisesfromtheprinciplesofself-preservationinthehumanframe；butisacorruption，oratleastapartialresult，ofthoseprinciples，andisuponmanyaccountsveryimproperlytermedself-love。
Loveisanaffectionwhichcarriestheattentionofthemindbeyonditself，andhasaquality，whichwecalltenderness，thatnevercanaccompanytheconsiderationsofinterest。Thisaffectionbeingacomplacencyandacontinuedsatisfactioninitsobject，independentofanyexternalevent，ithas，inthemidstofdisappointmentandsorrow，pleasuresandtriumphsunknowntothosewhOactwithoutanyregardtotheirfellow-creatures；andineverychangeofcondition，itcontinuesentirelydistinctfromthesentimentswhichwefeelonthesubjectofpersonalsuccessoradversity。Butasthecareamanentertainsforhisowninterest，andtheattentionhisaffectionmakeshimpaytothatofanother，mayhavesimilareffects，theoneonhisownfortune，theotheronthatofhisfriend，weconfoundtheprinciplesfromwhichheacts；wesupposethattheyarethesameinkind，onlyreferredtodifferentobjects；andwenotonlymisapplythenameoflove，inconjunctionwithself，but，inamannertendingtodegradeournature，welimittheaimofthissupposedselfishaffectiontothesecuringoraccumulatingtheconstituentsofinterest，orthemeansofmereanimallife。
Itissomewhatremarkable，thatnotwithstandingmenvaluethemselvessomuchonqualitiesofthemind，onparts，learningandwit，oncourage，generosity，andhonour，thosemenarestillsupposedtobeinthehighestdegreeselfishorattentivetothemselves，whoaremostcarefulofanimallife，andwhoareleastmindfulofrenderingthatlifeanobjectworthyofcare。Itwillbedifficult，however，totellwhyagoodunderstanding，aresoluteandgenerousmind，shouldnot，byeverymaninhissenses，bereckonedasmuchpartsofhimself，aseitherhisstomachorhispalate，andmuchmorethanhisestateorhisdress。Theepicure，whoconsultshisphysician，howhemayrestorehisrelishforfood，andbycreatinganappetite，mayincreasethemeansofenjoyment，mightatleastwithanequalregardtohimself，consulthowhemightstrengthenhisaffectiontoaparentorachild，tohiscountryortomankind；anditisprobablethatanappetiteofthissortwouldproveasourceofenjoymentnotlessthantheformer。
Byoursupposedselfishmaxims，notwithstanding，wegenerallyexcludefromamongtheobjectsofourpersonalcares，manyofthehappierandmorerespectablequalitiesofhumannature。Weconsideraffectionandcourageasmerefollies，thatleadustoneglectorexposeourselves；wemakewisdomconsistinaregardtoourinterest；andwithoutexplainingwhatinterestmeans，wewouldhaveitunderstoodastheonlyreasonablemotiveofactionwithmankind。Thereisevenasystemofphilosophyfoundedupontenetsofthissort，andsuchisouropinionofwhatmenarelikelytodouponselfishprinciples，thatwethinkitmusthaveatendencyverydangeroustovirtue。Buttheerrorsofthissystemdonotconsistsomuchingeneralprinciples，asintheirparticularapplications；notsomuchinteachingmentoregardthemselves，asinleadingthemtoforgetthattheirhappiestaffections，theircandour，andtheirindependenceofmind，areinrealitypartsofthemselves。Andtheadversariesofthissupposedselfishphilosophy，whereitmakesself-lovetherulingpassionwithmankind，havehadreasontofindfault，notsomuchwithitsgeneralrepresentationsofhumannature，aswiththeobtrusionofamereinnovationinlanguageforadiscoveryinscience。
Whenthevulgarspeakoftheirdifferentmotives，theyaresatisfiedwithordinarynames，whichrefertoknownandobviousdistinctions。Ofthiskindarethetermsbenevolenceandselfishness，bywhichtheyexpresstheirdesireofthewelfareofothers，orthecareoftheirown。Thespeculativearenotalwayssatisfiedwiththisproceeding；theywouldanalyze，aswellasenumeratetheprinciplesofnature；andthechanceis，that，merelytogaintheappearanceofsomethingnew，withoutanyprospectofrealadvantage，theywilldisturbtheorderofvulgarapprehension。Inthecasebeforeus，theyhaveactuallyfound，thatbenevolenceisnomorethanaspeciesofself-love；andwouldobligeus，ifpossible，tolookoutforanewsetofwords，bywhichwemaydistinguishtheselfishnessoftheparentwhenhetakescareofhischild，fromhisselfishnesswhenheonlytakescareofhimself。Foraccordingtothisphilosophy，asinbothcasesheonlymeanstogratifyadesireofhisown，heisinbothcasesequallyselfish。Thetermbenevolent，inthemeantime，isnotemployedtocharacterisepersonswhohavenodesiresoftheirown，butpersonswhoseowndesirespromptthemtoprocurethewelfareofothers。Thefactis，thatweshouldneedonlyafreshsupplyoflanguage，insteadofthatwhichbythisseemingdiscoveryweshouldhavelost，inordertomakethereasoningsofmenproceedastheyformerlydid。Butitiscertainlyimpossibletoliveandtoactwithmen，withoutemployingdifferentnamestodistinguishthehumanefromthecruel，andthebenevolentfromtheselfish。
Thesetermshavetheirequivalentsineverytongue；theywereinventedbymenofnorefinement，whoonlymeanttoexpresswhattheydistinctlyperceivedorstronglyfelt。Andifamanofspeculationshouldprovethatweareselfishinasenseofhisown，itdoesnotfollowthatwearesointhesenseofthevulgar；or，asordinarymenwouldunderstandhisconclusion，thatwearecondemnedineveryinstancetoactonmotivesofinterest，covetousness，pusillanimity，andcowardice；forsuchisconceivedtobetheordinaryimportofselfishnessinthecharacterofman。
Anaffectionorpassionofanykindissometimessaidtogiveusaninterestinitsobject；andhumanityitselfgivesaninterestinthewelfareofmankind。Thisterminterest，whichcommonlyimplieslittlemorethanourregardtoproperty，issometimesputforutilityingeneral，andthisforhappiness；
insomuchthat，undertheseambiguities，itisnotsurprisingwearestillunabletodetermine，whetherinterestistheonlymotiveofhumanaction，andthestandardbywhichtodistinguishourgoodfromourill。
Somuchissaidinthisplace，notfromanydesiretohaveashareinanycontroversyofthissort，butmerelytoconfinethemeaningoftheterminteresttoitsmostcommonacceptation，andtointimateourintentionofemployingitinexpressingthoseobjectsofcarewhichrefertoourexternalcondition，andthepreservationofouranimalnature。Whentakeninthissense，itwillnotsurelybethoughttocomprehendatonceallthemotivesofhumanconduct。Ifmenbenotallowedtohavedisinterestedbenevolence，theywillnotbedeniedtohavedisinterestedpassionsofanotherkind。Hatred，indignation，andrage，frequentlyurgethemtoactinoppositiontotheirknowninterest，andeventohazardtheirlives，withoutanyhopesofcompensationinanyfuturereturnsofprefermentorprofit。
SectionIII
OftheprinciplesofUnionamongMankindMankindhavealwayswanderedorsettled，agreedorquarrelled，introopsandcompanies。Thecauseoftheirassembling，whateveritbe，istheprincipleoftheirallianceorunion。
Incollectingthematerialsofhistory，weareseldomwillingtoputupwithoursubjectmerelyaswefindit。Wearelothtobeembarrassedwithamultiplicityofparticulars，andapparentinconsistencies。Intheoryweprofesstheinvestigationofgeneralprinciples；andinordertobringthematterofourinquirieswithinthereachofourcomprehension，aredisposedtoadoptanysystem，Thus，intreatingofhumanaffairs，wewoulddraweveryconsequencefromaprincipleofunion，oraprincipleofdissension。Thestateofnatureisastateofwarorofamity，andmenaremadetounitefromaprincipleofaffection，orfromaprincipleoffear，asismostsuitabletothesystemofdifferentwriters。Thehistoryofourspeciesindeedabundantlyshews，thattheyaretooneanothermutualobjectsbothoffearandoflove；andtheywhoprovethemtohavebeenoriginallyeitherinastateofalliance，orofwar，haveargumentsinstoretomaintaintheirassertions。Ourattachmenttoonedivision，ortoonesect，seemsoftentoderivemuchofitsforcefromananimosityconceivedtoanoppositeone:andthisanimosityinitsturn，asoftenarisesfromazealinbehalfofthesideweespouse，andfromadesiretovindicatetherightsofourparty。
’Manisborninsociety，’saysMontesquieu，’andthereheremains。’Thecharmsthatdetainhimareknowntobemanifold。Wemayreckontheparentalaffection，which，insteadofdesertingtheadult，asamongthebrutes，embracesmoreclose，asitbecomesmixedwithesteem，andthememoryofitsearlyeffects；
togetherwithapropensitycommontomanandotheranimals，tomixwiththeherd，and，withoutreflection，tofollowthecroudofhisspecies。Whatthispropensitywasinthefirstmomentofitsoperation，weknownot；butwithmenaccustomedtocompany，itsenjoymentsanddisappointmentsarereckonedamongtheprincipalpleasuresorpainsofhumanlife。Sadnessandmelancholyareconnectedwithsolitude；gladnessandpleasurewiththeconcourseofmen。ThetrackofaLaplanderonthesnowyshore，givesjoytothelonelymariner；andthemutesignsofcordialityandkindnesswhicharemadetohim，awakenthememoryofpleasureswhichhefeltinsociety。Infine，saysthewriterofavoyagetothenorth，afterdescribingamutesceneofthissort，’Wewereextremelypleasedtoconversewithmen，sinceinthirteenmonthswehadseennohumancreature。’(5*)Butweneednoremoteobservationtoconfirmthisposition:Thewailingsoftheinfant，andthelanguorsoftheadult，whenalone；thelivelyjoysoftheone，andthechearfulnessoftheother，uponthereturnofcompany，areasufficientproofofitssolidfoundationsintheframeofournature。
Inaccountingforactionsweoftenforgetthatweourselveshaveacted；andinsteadofthesentimentswhichstimulatethemindinthepresenceofitsobject，weassignasthemotivesofconductwithmen，thoseconsiderationswhichoccurinthehoursofretirementandcoldreflection。Inthismoodfrequentlywecanfindnothingimportant，besidesthedeliberateprospectsofinterest；andagreatwork，likethatofformingsociety，mustinourapprehensionarisefromdeepreflections，andbecarriedonwithaviewtotheadvantageswhichmankindderivefromcommerceandmutualsupport。Butneitherapropensitytomixwiththeherd，northesenseofadvantagesenjoyedinthatcondition，comprehendalltheprinciplesbywhichmenareunitedtogether。
Thosebandsareevenofafeebletexture，whencomparedtotheresoluteardourwithwhichamanadherestohisfriend，ortohistribe，aftertheyhaveforsometimerunthecareeroffortunetogether。Mutualdiscoveriesofgenerosity，jointtrialsoffortitude，redoubletheardoursoffriendship，andkindleaflameinthehumanbreast，whichtheconsiderationsofpersonalinterestorsafetycannotsuppress。Themostlivelytransportsofjoyareseen，andtheloudestshrieksofdespairareheard，whentheobjectsofatenderaffectionarebeheldinastateoftriumphorofsuffering。AnIndianrecoveredhisfriendunexpectedlyontheislandofJuanFernandes:Heprostratedhimselfontheground，athisfeet:’Westoodgazinginsilence，’
saysDampier，’atthistenderscene。’IfwewouldknowwhatisthereligionofawildAmerican，whatitisinhisheartthatmostresemblesdevotion:itisnothisfearofthesorcerer，norhishopeofprotectionfromthespiritsoftheairorthewood；
itistheardentaffectionwithwhichheselectsandembraceshisfriend；withwhichheclingstohissideineveryseasonofperil；andwithwhichheinvokeshisspiritfromadistance，whendangerssurprisehimalone。(6*)Whateverproofswemayhaveofthesocialdispositionofmaninfamiliarandcontiguousscenes，itispossiblyofimportance，todrawourobservationsfromtheexamplesofmenwholiveinthesimplestcondition，andwhohavenotlearnedtoaffectwhattheydonotactuallyfeel。
Mereacquaintanceandhabitudenourishaffection，andtheexperienceofsocietybringseverypassionofthehumanminduponitsside。Itstriumphsandprosperities，itscalamitiesanddistresses，bringavarietyandaforceofemotion，whichcanonlyhaveplaceinthecompanyofourfellow-creatures。Itisherethatamanismadetoforgethisweakness，hiscaresofsafety，andhissubsistence；andtoactfromthosepassionswhichmakehimdiscoverhisforce。Itisherehefindsthathisarrowsflyswifterthantheeagle，andhisweaponswounddeeperthanthepawofthelion，orthetoothoftheboar。Itisnotalonehissenseofasupportwhichisnear，northeloveofdistinctionintheopinionofhistribe，thatinspirehiscourage，orswellhisheartwithaconfidencethatexceedswhathisnaturalforceshouldbestow。Vehementpassionsofanimosityorattachmentarethefirstexertionsofvigourinhisbreast；undertheirinfluence，everyconsideration，butthatofhisobject，isforgotten；dangersanddifficultiesonlyexcitehimthemore。
Thatconditionissurelyfavourabletothenatureofanybeing，inwhichhisforceisincreased；andifcouragebethegiftofsocietytoman，wehavereasontoconsiderhisunionwithhisspeciesasthenoblestpartofhisfortune。Fromthissourcearederived，notonlytheforce，buttheveryexistenceofhishappiestemotions；notonlythebetterpart，butalmostthewholeofhisrationalcharacter。Sendhimtothedesertalone，heisaplanttornfromitsroots:theformindeedmayremain，buteveryfacultydroopsandwithers；thehumanpersonageandthehumancharacterceasetoexist。
Menaresofarfromvaluingsocietyonaccountofitsmereexternalconveniencies，thattheyarecommonlymostattachedwherethoseconvenienciesareleastfrequent；andaretheremostfaithful，wherethetributeoftheirallegianceispaidinblood。
Affectionoperateswiththegreatestforce，whereitmeetswiththegreatestdifficulties:Inthebreastoftheparent，itismostsolicitousamidstthedangersanddistressesofthechild:
Inthebreastofaman，itsflameredoubleswherethewrongsorsufferingsofhisfriend，orhiscountry，requirehisaid。Itis，inshort，fromthisprinciplealonethatwecanaccountfortheobstinateattachmentofasavagetohisunsettledanddefencelesstribe，whentemptationsonthesideofeaseandofsafetymightinducehimtoflyfromfamineanddanger，toastationmoreaffluent，andmoresecure。HencethesanguineaffectionwhicheveryGreekboretohiscountry，andhencethedevotedpatriotismofanearlyRoman。Letthoseexamplesbecomparedwiththespiritwhichreignsinacommercialstate，wheremenmaybesupposedtohaveexperienced，initsfullextent，theinterestwhichindividualshaveinthepreservationoftheircountry。Itishereindeed，ifever，thatmanissometimesfoundadetachedandasolitarybeing:hehasfoundanobjectwhichsetshimincompetitionwithhisfellow-creatures，andhedealswiththemashedoeswithhiscattleandhissoil，forthesakeoftheprofitstheybring。Themightyenginewhichwesupposetohaveformedsociety，onlytendstosetitsmembersatvariance，ortocontinuetheirintercourseafterthebandsofaffectionarebroken。
SectionIV
OftheprinciplesofWarandDissension’Therearesomecircumstancesinthelotofmankind，’saysSocrates，’thatshewthemtobedestinedtofriendshipandamity。
Thoseare，theirmutualneedofoneanother；theirmutualcompassion；theirsenseofmutualbenefits；andthepleasuresarisingincompany。Thereareothercircumstanceswhichpromptthemtowaranddissension；theadmirationandthedesirewhichtheyentertainforthesamesubjects；theiroppositepretensions；
andtheprovocationswhichtheymutuallyofferinthecourseoftheircompetitions。’
Whenweendeavourtoapplythemaximsofnaturaljusticetothesolutionofdifficultquestions，wefindthatsomecasesmaybesupposed，andactuallyhappen，whereoppositionstakeplace；
andarelawful，priortoanyprovocation，oractofinjustice；
thatwherethesafetyandpreservationofnumbersaremutuallyinconsistent，onepartymayemployhisrightofdefence，beforetheotherhasbegunanattack。Andwhenwejoinwithsuchexamples，theinstancesofmistake，andmisunderstanding，towhichmankindareexposed，wemaybesatisfiedthatwardoesnotalwaysproceedfromanintentiontoinjure；andthateventhebestqualitiesofmen，theircandour，aswellastheirresolution，mayoperateinthemidstoftheirquarrels。
Thereisstillmoretobeobservedonthissubject。Mankindnotonlyfindintheirconditionthesourcesofvarianceanddissension；theyappeartohaveintheirmindstheseedsofanimosity，andtoembracetheoccasionsofmutualopposition，withalacrityandpleasure。Inthemostpacificsituationtherearefewwhohavenottheirenemies，aswellastheirfriends；andwhoarenotpleasedwithopposingtheproceedingsofone，asmuchaswithfavouringthedesignsofanother。Smallandsimpletribes，whointheirdomesticsocietyhavethefirmestunion，areintheirstateofoppositionasseparatenations，frequentlyanimatedwiththemostimplacablehatred。AmongthecitizensofRome，intheearlyagesofthatrepublic，thenameofaforeigner，andthatofanenemy，werethesame。AmongtheGreeks，thenameofBarbarian，underwhichthatpeoplecomprehendedeverynationthatwasofarace，andspokealanguage，differentfromtheirown，becameatermofindiscriminatecontemptandaversion。
Evenwherenoparticularclaimtosuperiorityisformed，therepugnancetounion，thefrequentwars，orrathertheperpetualhostilities，whichtakeplaceamongrudenationsandseparateclans，discoverhowmuchourspeciesisdisposedtoopposition，aswellastoconcert。
Latediscoverieshavebroughtustotheknowledgeofalmosteverysituationinwhichmankindareplaced。Wehavefoundthemspreadoverlargeandextensivecontinents，wherecommunicationsareopen，andwherenationalconfederacymightbeeasilyformed。
Wehavefoundtheminnarrowerdistricts，circumscribedbymountains，greatrivers，andarmsofthesea。Theyhavebeenfoundinsmallandremoteislands，wheretheinhabitantsmightbeeasilyassembled，andderiveanadvantagefromtheirunion。Butinallthosesituations，alike，theywerebrokeintocantons，andaffectedadistinctionofnameandcommunity。Thetitlesoffellow-citizenandcountryman，unopposedtothoseofalienandforeigner，towhichtheyrefer，wouldfallintodisuse，andlosetheirmeaning。Weloveindividualsonaccountofpersonalqualities；butweloveourcountry，asitisapartyinthedivisionsofmankind；andourzealforitsinterest，isapredilectioninbehalfofthesidewemaintain。
Inthepromiscuousconcourseofmen，itissufficientthatwehaveanopportunityofselectingourcompany。Weturnawayfromthosewhodonotengageus，andwefixourresortwherethesocietyismoretoourmind。Wearefondofdistinctions；weplaceourselvesinopposition，andquarrelunderthedenominationsoffactionandparty，withoutanymaterialsubjectofcontroversy。Aversion，likeaffection，isfosteredbyacontinueddirectiontoitsparticularobject。Separationandestrangement，aswellasopposition，widenabreachwhichdidnotoweitsbeginningstoanyoffence。Anditwouldseem，thattillwehavereducedmankindtothestateofafamily，orfoundsomeexternalconsiderationtomaintaintheirconnectioningreaternumbers，theywillbeforeverseparatedintobands，andformapluralityofnations。
Thesenseofacommondanger，andtheassaultsofanenemy，havebeenfrequentlyusefultonations，byunitingtheirmembersmorefirmlytogether，andbypreventingthesecessionsandactualseparationsinwhichtheircivildiscordmightotherwiseterminate。Andthismotivetounionwhichisofferedfromabroad，maybenecessary，notonlyinthecaseoflargeandextensivenations，wherecoalitionsareweakenedbydistance，andthedistinctionofprovincialnames；buteveninthenarrowsocietyofthesmalleststates。Romeitselfwasfoundedbyasmallparty，whichtookitsflightfromAlba；hercitizenswereoftenindangerofseparating；andifthevillagesandcantonsoftheVolscihadbeenfurtherremovedfromthesceneoftheirdissensions，theMonsSacermighthavereceivedanewcolonybeforethemothercountrywasripeforsuchadischarge。Shecontinuedlongtofeelthequarrelsofhernoblesandherpeople；
andthegatesofJanuswerefrequentlyopened，toremindherinhabitantsofthedutiestheyowedtotheircountry。
Ifsocieties，aswellasindividuals，bechargedwiththecareoftheirownpreservation，andifinbothweapprehendaseparationofinterest，whichmaygiverisetojealousiesandcompetitions，wecannotbesurprisedtofindhostilitiesarisefromthissource。Butweretherenoangrypassionsofadifferentsort，theanimositieswhichattendanoppositionofinterest，shouldbearaproportiontothesupposedvalueofthesubject。
’TheHottentotnations，’saysKolben，’trespassononeanotherbytheftsofcattleandofwomen；butsuchinjuriesareseldomcommitted，exceptwithaviewtoexasperatetheirneighbours，andbringthemtoawar。’Suchdepredationsthenarenotthefoundationofawar，buttheeffectsofahostileintentionalreadyconceived。ThenationsofNorthAmerica，whohavenoherdstopreserve，norsettlementstodefend，areyetengagedinalmostperpetualwars，forwhichtheycanassignnoreason，butthepointofhonour，andadesiretocontinuethestruggletheirfathersmaintained。’Theydonotregardthespoilsofanenemy；
andthewarriorwhohasseizedanybooty，easilypartswithittothefirstpersonwhocomesinhisway。(7*)
ButweneednotcrosstheAtlantictofindproofsofanimosity，andtoobserve，inthecollisionofseparatesocieties，theinfluenceofangrypassions，thatdonotarisefromanoppositionofinterest。Humannaturehasnopartofitscharacter，ofwhichmoreflagrantexamplesaregivenonthissideoftheglobe。Whatisitthatstirsinthebreastsofordinarymenwhentheenemiesoftheircountryarenamed？Whencearetheprejudicesthatsubsistbetweendifferentprovinces，cantons，andvillages，ofthesameempireandterritory？WhatisitthatexcitesonehalfofthenationsofEuropeagainsttheother？Thestatesmanmayexplainhisconductonmotivesofnationaljealousyandcaution，butthepeoplehavedislikesandantipathies，forwhichtheycannotaccount。Theirmutualreproachesofperfidyandinjustice，liketheHottentotdepredations，arebutsymptomsofananimosity，andthelanguageofahostiledisposition，alreadyconceived。Thechargeofcowardiceandpusillanimity，qualitieswhichtheinterestedandcautiousenemyshould，ofallothers，likebesttofindinhisrival，isurgedwithaversion，andmadethegroundofdislike。HearthepeasantsondifferentsidesoftheAlps，andthePyrenees，theRhine，ortheBritishchannel，giveventtotheirprejudicesandnationalpassions；itisamongthemthatwefindthematerialsofwaranddissensionlaidwithoutthedirectionofgovernment，andsparksreadytokindleintoaflame，whichthestatesmanisfrequentlydisposedtoextinguish。Thefirewillnotalwayscatchwherehisreasonsofstatewoulddirect，norstopwheretheconcurrenceofinteresthasproducedanalliance。’MyFather，’saidaSpanishpeasant，’wouldrisefromhisgrave，ifhecouldforeseeawarwithFrance。，Whatinteresthadhe，orthebonesofhisfather，inthequarrelsofprinces？
Theseobservationsseemtoarraignourspecies，andtogiveanunfavourablepictureofmankind；andyettheparticularswehavementionedareconsistentwiththemostamiablequalitiesofournature，andoftenfurnishascenefortheexerciseofourgreatestabilities。Theyaresentimentsofgenerosityandself-denialthatanimatethewarriorindefenceofhiscountry；
andtheyaredispositionsmostfavourabletomankind，thatbecometheprinciplesofapparenthostilitytomen。Everyanimalismadetodelightintheexerciseofhisnaturaltalentsandforces:Thelionandthetygersportwiththepaw；thehorsedelightstocommithismanetothewind，andforgetshispasturetotryhisspeedinthefield；thebullevenbeforehisbrowisarmed，andthelambwhileyetanemblemofinnocence，haveadispositiontostrikewiththeforehead，andanticipate，inplay，theconflictstheyaredoomedtosustain。Mantooisdisposedtoopposition，andtoemploytheforcesofhisnatureagainstanequalantagonist；helovestobringhisreason，hiseloquence，hiscourage，evenhisbodilystrength，totheproof。Hissportsarefrequentlyanimageofwar；sweatandbloodarefreelyexpendedinplay；，andfracturesordeathareoftenmadetoterminatethepastimesofidlenessandfestivity。Hewasnotmadetoliveforever，andevenhisloveofamusementhasopenedapaththatleadstothegrave。
Withouttherivalshipofnations，andthepracticeofwar，civilsocietyitselfcouldscarcelyhavefoundanobject，oraform。Mankindmighthavetradedwithoutanyformalconvention，buttheycannotbesafewithoutanationalconcert。Thenecessityofapublicdefence，hasgivenrisetomanydepartmentsofstate，andtheintellectualtalentsofmenhavefoundtheirbusiestsceneinwieldingtheirnationalforces。Tooverawe，orintimidate，or，whenwecannotpersuadewithreason，toresistwithfortitude，aretheoccupationswhichgiveitsmostanimatingexercise，anditsgreatesttriumphs，toavigorousmind；andhewhohasneverstruggledwithhisfellow-creatures，isastrangertohalfthesentimentsofmankind。
Thequarrelsofindividuals，indeed，arefrequentlytheoperationsofunhappyanddetestablepassions；malice，hatred，andrage。Ifsuchpassionsalonepossessthebreast，thesceneofdissensionbecomesanobjectofhorror；butacommonoppositionmaintainedbynumbers，isalwaysallayedbypassionsofanothersort。Sentimentsofaffectionandfriendshipmixwithanimosity；
theactiveandstrenuousbecometheguardiansoftheirsociety；
andviolenceitselfis，intheircase，anexertionofgenerosityaswellasofcourage。Weapplaud，asproceedingfromanationalorpartyspirit，whatwecouldnotendureastheeffectofaprivatedislike；andamidstthecompetitionsofrivalstates，thinkwehavefound，forthepatriotandthewarrior，inthepracticeofviolenceandstratagem，themostillustriouscareerofhumanvirtue。Evenpersonaloppositionheredoesnotdivideourjudgementonthemeritsofmen。TherivalnamesofAgesilausandEpaminondas，ofScipioandHannibal，arerepeatedwithequalpraise；andwaritself，whichinoneviewappearssofatal，inanotheristheexerciseofaliberalspirit；andintheveryeffectswhichweregret，isbutonedistempermorebywhichtheauthorofnaturehasappointedourexitfromhumanlife。
Thesereflectionsmayopenourviewintothestateofmankind；buttheytendtoreconcileustotheconductofProvidence，ratherthantomakeuschangeourown:where，fromaregardtothewelfareofourfellow-creatures，weendeavourtopacifytheiranimosities，andunitethembythetiesofaffection。Inthepursuitofthisamiableintention，wemayhope，insomeinstances，todisarmtheangrypassionsofjealousyandenvy。wemayhopetoinstilintothebreastsofprivatemensentimentsofcandourtowardtheirfellow-creatures，andadispositiontohumanityandjustice。Butitisvaintoexpectthatwecangivetothemultitudeofapeopleasenseofunionamongthemselves，withoutadmittinghostilitytothosewhoopposethem。Couldweatonce，inthecaseofanynation，extinguishtheemulationwhichisexcitedfromabroad，weshouldprobablybreakorweakenthebandsofsocietyathome，andclosethebusiestscenesofnationaloccupationsandvirtues。
SectionV
OfIntellectualPowersManyattemptshavebeenmadetoanalyzethedispositionswhichwehavenowenumerated；butonepurposeofscience，perhapsthemostimportant，isserved，whentheexistenceofadispositionisestablished。Wearemoreconcernedinitsreality，andinitsconsequences，thanweareinitsorigin，ormannerofformation。
Thesameobservationmaybeappliedtotheotherpowersandfacultiesofournature。Theirexistenceandusearetheprincipalobjectsofourstudy。Thinkingandreasoning，wesay，aretheoperationsofsomefaculty；butinwhatmannerthefacultiesofthoughtorreasonremain，whentheyarenotexerted，orbywhatdifferenceintheframetheyareunequalindifferentpersons，arequestionswhichwecannotresolve。Theiroperationsalonediscoverthem:whenunapplied，theyliehidevenfromthepersontowhomtheypertain；andtheiractionissomuchapartoftheirnature，thatthefacultyitself，inmanycases，isscarcelytobedistinguishedfromahabitacquiredinitsfrequentexertion。
Personswhoareoccupiedwithdifferentsubjects，whoactindifferentscenes，generallyappeartohavedifferenttalents，oratleasttohavethesamefacultiesvariouslyformed，andsuitedtodifferentpurposes。Thepeculiargeniusofnations，aswellasofindividuals，mayinthismannerarisefromthestateoftheirfortunes。Anditisproperthatweendeavourtofindsomerule，bywhichtojudgeofwhatisadmirableinthecapacitiesofmen，orfortunateintheapplicationoftheirfaculties，beforeweventuretopassajudgmentonthisbranchoftheirmerits，orpretendtomeasurethedegreeofrespecttheymayclaimbytheirdifferentattainments。
Toreceivetheinformationsofsense，isperhapstheearliestfunctionofananimalcombinedwithanintellectualnature；andonegreataccomplishmentofthelivingagentconsistsintheforceandsensibilityofhisanimalorgans。Thepleasuresorpainstowhichheisexposedfromthisquarter，constitutetohimanimportantdifferencebetweentheobjectswhicharethusbroughttohisknowledge；anditconcernshimtodistinguishwell，beforehecommitshimselftothedirectionofappetite。Hemustscrutinizetheobjectsofonesensebytheperceptionsofanother；examinewiththeeye，beforeheventurestotouch；andemployeverymeansofobservation，beforehegratifiestheappetitesofthirstandofhunger。Adiscernmentacquiredbyexperience，becomesafacultyofhismind；andtheinferencesofthoughtaresometimesnottobedistinguishedfromtheperceptionsofsense。
Theobjectsaroundus，besidetheirseparateappearances，havetheirrelationstooneanother。Theysuggest，whencompared，whatwouldnotoccurwhentheyareconsideredapart；theyhavetheireffects，andmutualinfluences；theyexhibit，inlikecircumstances，similaroperations，anduniformconsequences。Whenwehavefoundandexpressedthepointsinwhichtheuniformityoftheiroperationsconsists，wehaveascertainedaphysicallaw。
Manysuchlaws，andeventhemostimportant，areknowntothevulgar，andoccuruponthesmallestdegreesofreJection:butothersarehidunderaseemingconfusion，whichordinarytalentscannotremove；andarethereforetheobjectsofstudy，longobservation，andsuperiorcapacity。Thefacultiesofpenetrationandjudgement，are，bymenofbusiness，aswellasofscience，employedtounravelintricaciesofthissort；andthedegreeofsagacitywithwhicheitherisendowed，istobemeasuredbythesuccesswithwhichtheyareabletofindgeneralrules，applicabletoavarietyofcasesthatseemedtohavenothingincommon，andtodiscoverimportantdistinctionsbetweensubjectswhichthevulgarareapttoconfound。
Tocollectamultiplicityofparticularsundergeneralheads，andtoreferavarietyofoperationstotheircommonprinciple，istheobjectofscience。Todothesamething，atleastwithintherangeofhisactiveengagements，pertainstothemanofpleasure，orbusiness:anditwouldseem，thatthestudiousandtheactivearesofaremployedinthesametask，fromobservationandexperience，tofindthegeneralviewsunderwhichtheirobjectsmaybeconsidered，andtheruleswhichmaybeusefullyappliedinthedetailoftheirconduct。Theydonotalwaysapplytheirtalentstodifferentsubjects；andtheyseemtobedistinguishedchieflybytheunequalreachandvarietyoftheirremarks，orbytheintentionswhichtheyseverallyhaveincollectingthem。
Whilstmencontinuetoactfromappetitesandpassions，leadingtotheattainmentofexternalends，theyseldomquittheviewoftheirobjectsindetail，togofarintheroadofgeneralinquiries。Theymeasuretheextentoftheirownabilities，bythepromptitudewithwhichtheyapprehendwhatisimportantineverysubject，andthefacilitywithwhichtheyextricatethemselvesoneverytryingoccasion。Andthese，itmustbeconfessed，toabeingwhoisdestinedtoactinthemidstofdifficulties，arethepropertestofcapacityandforce。Theparadeofwords，andgeneralreasonings，whichsometimescarryanappearanceofsomuchlearningandknowledge，areoflittleavailintheconductoflife。Thetalentsfromwhichtheyproceed，terminateinmereostentation，andareseldomconnectedwiththatsuperiordiscernment，withwhichtheactiveapplyintimesofperplexity；
muchlessthatintrepidityandforceofmindwhicharerequiredinpassingthroughdifficultscenes。
Theabilitiesofactivemen，however，haveavarietycorrespondingtothatofthesubjectsonwhichtheyareoccupied。
Asagacityappliedtoexternalandinanimatenature，formsonespeciesofcapacity；thatwhichisturnedtosocietyandhumanaffairs，another。Reputationforpartsinanysceneisequivocal，tillweknowbywhatkindofexertionthatreputationisgained。
Thattheyunderstandwellthesubjectstowhichtheyapply，isallthatcanbesaid，incommendingmenofthegreatestabilities:andeverydepartment，everyprofession，wouldhaveitsgreatmen，iftherewerenotachoiceofobjectsfortheunderstanding，andoftalentsforthemind，aswellasofsentimentsfortheheart，andofhabitsfortheactivecharacter。
Themeanestprofessions，indeed，sofarsometimesforgetthemselves，ortherestofmankind，astoarrogate，incommendingwhatisdistinguishedintheirownway，everyepithetthemostrespectableclaimastherightofsuperiorabilities。Everymechanicisagreatmanwiththelearner，andthehumbleadmirer，inhisparticularcalling；andwecan，perhaps，withmoreassurancepronouncewhatitisthatshouldmakeamanhappyandamiable，thanwhatshouldmakehisabilitiesrespected，andhisgeniusadmired。This，uponaviewofthetalentsthemselves，mayperhapsbeimpossible。Theeffect，however，willpointouttheruleandthestandardofourjudgement。Tobeadmiredandrespected，istohaveanascendantamongmen。Thetalentswhichmostdirectlyprocurethatascendant，arethosewhichoperateonmankind，penetratetheirviews，preventtheirwishes，orfrustratetheirdesigns。Thesuperiorcapacityleadswithasuperiorenergy，whereeveryindividualwouldgo，andshewsthehesitatingandtheirresoluteaclearpassagetotheattainmentoftheirends。
Thisdescriptiondoesnotpertaintoanyparticularcraftorprofession；orperhapsitimpliesakindofability，whichtheseparateapplicationofmentoparticularcallings，onlytendstosuppressortoweaken。Whereshallwefindthetalentswhicharefittoactwithmeninacollectivebody，ifwebreakthatbodyintoparts，andconfinetheobservationofeachtoaseparatetrack？
Toactintheviewofhisfellow-creatures，toproducehismindinpublic，togiveitalltheexerciseofsentimentandthought，whichpertaintomanasamemberofsociety，asafriend，oranenemy，seemstobetheprincipalcallingandoccupationofhisnature。Ifhemustlabour，thathemaysubsist，hecansubsistfornobetterpurposethanthegoodofmankind；
norcanhehavebettertalentsthanthosewhichqualifyhimtoactwithmen。Here，indeed，theunderstandingappearstoborrowverymuchfromthepassions；andthereisafelicityofconductinhumanaffairs，inwhichitisdifficulttodistinguishthepromptitudeoftheheadfromtheardourandsensibilityoftheheart。Wherebothareunited，theyconstitutethatsuperiorityofmind，thefrequencyofwhichamongmen，inparticularagesandnations，muchmorethantheprogresstheyhavemadeinspeculation，orinthepracticeofmechanicandliberalarts，shoulddeterminetherateoftheirgenius，andassignthepalmofdistinctionandhonour。
Whennationssucceedoneanotherinthecareerofdiscoveriesandinquiries，thelastisalwaysthemostknowing。Systemsofsciencearegraduallyformed。Theglobeitselfistraversedbydegrees，andthehistoryofeveryage，whenpast，isanaccessionofknowledgetothosewhosucceed。TheRomansweremoreknowingthantheGreeks；andeveryscholarofmodernEuropeis，inthissense，morelearnedthanthemostaccomplishedpersonthateverboreeitherofthosecelebratednames。Butisheonthataccounttheirsuperior？
Menaretobeestimated，notfromwhattheyknow，butfromwhattheyareabletoperform；fromtheirskillinadaptingmaterialstotheseveralpurposesoflife；fromtheirvigourandconductinpursuingtheobjectsofpolicy，andinfindingtheexpedientsofwarandnationaldefence。Eveninliterature，theyaretobeestimatedfromtheworksoftheirgenius，notfromtheextentoftheirknowledge。ThesceneofmereobservationwasextremelylimitedinaGrecianrepublic；andthebustleofanactivelifeappearedinconsistentwithstudy。buttherethehumanmind，notwithstanding，collecteditsgreatestabilities，andreceiveditsbestinformations，inthemidstofsweatandofdust。
ItispeculiartomodernEurope，torestsomuchofthehumancharacteronwhatmaybelearnedinretirement，andfromtheinformationofbooks。Ajustadmirationofancientliterature，anopinionthathumansentiment，andhumanreason，withoutthisaid，weretohavevanishedfromthesocietiesofmen，haveledusintotheshade，whereweendeavourtoderivefromimaginationandthought，whatisinrealitymatterofexperienceandsentiment:
andweendeavour，throughthegrammarofdeadlanguages，andthechannelofcommentators，toarriveatthebeautiesofthoughtandelocution，whichsprangfromtheanimatedspiritofsociety，andweretakenfromthelivingimpressionsofanactivelife。Ourattainmentsarefrequentlylimitedtotheelementsofeveryscience，andseldomreachtothatenlargementofabilityandpowerwhichusefulknowledgeshouldgive。Likemathematicians，whostudytheElementsofEuclid，butneverthinkofmensuration，wereadofsocieties，butdonotproposetoactwithmen:werepeatthelanguageofpolitics，butfeelnotthespiritofnations:weattendtotheformalitiesofamilitarydiscipline，butknownothowtoemploynumbersofmentoobtainanypurposebystratagemorforce。
Butforwhatend，itmaysaid，pointoutamisfortunethatcannotberemedied？Ifnationalaffairscalledforexertion，thegeniusofmenwouldawake；butintherecessofbetteremployment，thetimewhichisbestowedonstudy，ifevenattendedwithnootheradvantage，servestooccupywithinnocencethehoursofleisure，andsetboundstothepursuitofruinousandfrivolousamusements。Fromnobetterreasonthanthis，weemploysomanyofourearlyyears，undertherod，toacquirewhatitisnotexpectedweshouldretainbeyondthethresholdoftheschool；
andwhilstwecarrythesamefrivolouscharacterinourstudiesthatwedoinouramusements，thehumanmindcouldnotsuffermorefromacontemptofletters，thanitdoesfromthefalseimportancewhichisgiventoliterature，asabusinessforlife，notasahelptoourconduct，andthemeansofformingacharacterthatmaybehappyinitself，andusefultomankind。
Ifthattimewhichispassedinrelaxingthepowersofthemind，andinwith-holdingeveryobjectbutwhattendstoweakenandtocorrupt，wereemployedinfortifyingthosepowers，andinteachingthemindtorecogniseitsobjects，anditsstrength，weshouldnot，attheyearsofmaturity，besomuchatalossforoccupation；nor，inattendingthechancesofagaming-table，misemployourtalents，orwastethefirewhichremainsinthebreast。They，atleast，whobytheirstationshaveashareinthegovernmentoftheircountry，mightbelievethemselvescapableofbusiness；andwhilethestatehaditsarmiesandcouncils，mightfindobjectsenoughtoamuse，withoutthrowingapersonalfortuneintohazard，merelytocuretheyawningsofalistlessandinsignificantlife。Itisimpossibleforevertomaintainthetoneofspeculation；itisimpossiblenotsometimestofeelthatweliveamongmen。
