SEctionX
ThesamesubjectcontinuedItisacommonobservation，Thatmankindwereoriginallyequal。Theyhaveindeedbynatureequalrightstotheirpreservation，andtotheuseoftheirtalents；buttheyarefittedfordifferentstations；andwhentheyareclassedbyaruletakenfromthiscircumstance，theysuffernoinjusticeonthesideoftheirnaturalrights。Itisobvious，thatsomemodeofsubordinationisasnecessarytomenassocietyitself；andthis，notonlytoattaintheendsofgovernment，buttocomplywithanorderestablishedbynature。
Priortoanypoliticalinstitutionwhatever，menarequalifiedbyagreatdiversityoftalents，byadifferenttoneofthesoul，andardourofthepassions，toactavarietyofparts。
Bringthemtogether，eachwillfindhisplace。Theycensureorapplaudinabody；theyconsultanddeliberateinmoreselectparties；theytakeorgiveanascendantasindividuals；andnumbersarebythismeansfittedtoactincompany，andtopreservetheircommunities，beforeanyformaldistributionofofficeismade。
Weareformedtoactinthismanner；andifwehaveanydoubtswithrelationtotherightsofgovernmentingeneral，weoweourperplexitymoretothesubtiltiesofthespeculative，thantoanyuncertaintyinthefeelingsoftheheart。Involvedintheresolutionsofourcompany，wemovewiththecroudbeforewehavedeterminedtherulebywhichitswilliscollected。Wefollowaleader，beforewehavesettledthegroundofhispretensions，oradjustedtheformofhiselection:anditisnottillaftermankindhavecommittedmanyerrorsinthecapacitiesofmagistrateandsubject，thattheythinkofmakinggovernmentitselfasubjectofrules。
Iftherefore，inconsideringthevarietyofformsunderwhichsocietiessubsist，thecasuistispleasedtoinquire，Whattitleoneman，oranynumberofmen，havetocontroulhisactions？hemaybeanswered，Noneatall，providedthathisactionshavenoeffecttotheprejudiceofhisfellow-creatures；butiftheyhave，therightsofdefence，andtheobligationtorepressthecommissionofwrongs，belongtocollectivebodies，aswellastoindividuals。Manyrudenations，havingnoformaltribunalsforthejudgementofcrimes，assemble，whenalarmedbyanyflagrantoffence，andtaketheirmeasureswiththecriminalastheywouldwithanenemy。
Butwillthisconsideration，whichconfirmsthetitletosovereignty，whereitisexercisedbythesocietyinitscollectivecapacity，orbythosetowhomthepowersofthewholearecommitted，likewisesupporttheclaimtodominion，where-everitiscasuallylodged，orevenwhereitisonlymaintainedbyforce？
Thisquestionmaybesufficientlyanswered，byobserving，thatarighttodojustice，andtodogood，iscompetenttoeveryindividual，ororderofmen。，andthattheexerciseofthisrighthasnolimitsbutinthedefectofpower。Butarighttodowrong，andcommitinjustice，isanabuseoflanguage，andacontradictioninterms。Itisnomorecompetenttothecollectivebodyofapeople，thanitistoanysingleusurper。Whenweadmitsuchaprerogativeinthecaseofanysovereign，wecanonlymeantoexpresstheextentofhispower，andtheforcewithwhichheisenabledtoexecutehispleasure。Suchaprerogativeisassumedbytheleaderofbandittiattheheadofhisgang，orbyadespoticprinceattheheadofhistroops，Whentheswordispresentedbyeither，thetravellerortheinhabitantmaysubmitfromasenseofnecessityorfear；butheliesundernoobligationfromamotiveofdutyorjustice。
Themultiplicityofforms，inthemeantime，whichdifferentsocietiesoffertoourview，isalmostinfinite。Theclassesintowhichtheydistributetheirmembers，themannerinwhichtheyestablishthelegislativeandexecutivepowers，theimperceptiblecircumstancesbywhichtheyareledtohavedifferentcustoms，andtoconferontheirgovernorsunequalmeasuresofpowerandauthority，giverisetoperpetualdistinctionsbetweenconstitutionsthemostnearlyresemblingoneanother，andgivetohumanaffairsavarietyindetail，which，initsfullextent，nounderstandingcancomprehend，andnomemoryretain。
Inordertohaveageneralandcomprehensiveknowledgeofthewhole，wemustbedeterminedonthis，asoneveryothersubject，tooverlookmanyparticularsandsingularities，distinguishingdifferentgovernments；tofixourattentiononcertainpoints，inwhichmanyagree；andtherebyestablishafewgeneralheads，underwhichthesubjectmaybedistinctlyconsidered。Whenwehavemarkedthecharacteristicswhichformthegeneralpointsofcoincidence；whenwehavepursuedthemtotheirconsequencesintheseveralmodesoflegislation，execution，andjudicature，intheestablishmentswhichrelatetopolice，commerce，religion，ordomesticlife；wehavemadeanacquisitionofknowledge，which，thoughitdoesnotsupersedethenecessityofexperience，mayservetodirectourinquiries，and，inthemidstofaffairs，togiveanorderandamethodforthearrangementofparticularsthatoccurtoourobservation。
WhenIrecollectwhatthePresidentMontesquieuhaswritten，Iamatalosstotell，whyIshouldtreatofhumanaffairs:butItooaminstigatedbymyreflections，andmysentiments；andI
mayutterthemmoretothecomprehensionofordinarycapacities，becauseIammoreonthelevelofordinarymen。Ifitbenecessarytopavethewayforwhatfollowsonthegeneralhistoryofnations，bygivingsomeaccountoftheheadsunderwhichvariousformsofgovernmentmaybeconvenientlyranged，thereadershouldperhapsbereferredtowhathasbeenalreadydeliveredonthesubjectbythisprofoundpoliticianandamiablemoralist。Inhiswritingswillbefound，notonlytheoriginalofwhatIamnow，forthesakeoforder，tocopyfromhim，butlikewiseprobablythesourceofmanyobservations，which，indifferentplaces，Imay，underthebeliefofinvention，haverepeated，withoutquotingtheirauthor。
Theancientphilosopherstreatedofgovernmentcommonlyunderthreeheads；theDemocratic，theAristocratic，andtheDespotic。
Theirattentionwaschieflyoccupiedwiththevarietiesofrepublicangovernment；andtheypaidlittleregardtoaveryimportantdistinction，whichMrMontesquieuhasmade，betweendespotismandmonarchy。Hetoohasconsideredgovernmentasreducibletothreegeneralforms；and，’tounderstandthenatureofeach，’heobserves，’itissufficienttorecalideaswhicharefamiliarwithmenoftheleastreflection，whoadmitthreedefinitions，orratherthreefacts:Thatarepublicisastateinwhichthepeopleinacollectivebody，orapartofthepeople，possessthesovereignpower:Thatmonarchyisthatinwhichonemangoverns，accordingtofixedanddeterminatelaws:Andadespotismisthatinwhichoneman，withoutlaw，orruleofadministration，bythemereimpulseofwillorcaprice，decides，andcarrieseverythingbeforehim。’
Republicsadmitofaverymaterialdistinction，whichispointedoutinthegeneraldefinition；thatbetweendemocracyandaristocracy。Inthefirst，supremepowerremainsinthehandsofthecollectivebody。Everyofficeofmagistracy，atthenominationofthissovereign，isopentoeverycitizen；who，inthedischargeofhisduty，becomestheministerofthepeople，andaccountabletothemforeveryobjectofhistrust。
Inthesecond，thesovereigntyislodgedinaparticularclass，ororderofmen；who，beingoncenamed，continueforlife；
orbythehereditarydistinctionsofbirthandfortune，areadvancedtoastationofpermanentsuperiority。Fromthisorder，andbytheirnomination，alltheofficeso？magistracyarefilled；andinthedifferentassemblieswhichtheyconstitute，whateverrelatestothelegislation，theexecution，orjurisdiction，isfinallydetermined。
MrMontesquieuhaspointedoutthesentimentsormaximsfromwhichmenmustbesupposedtoactunderthesedifferentgovernments。
Indemocracy，theymustloveequality；theymustrespecttherightsoftheirfellow-citizens；theymustunitebythecommontiesofaffectiontothestate。Informingpersonalpretensions，theymustbesatisfiedwiththatdegreeofconsiderationtheycanprocurebytheirabilitiesfairlymeasuredwiththoseofanopponent；theymustlabourforthepublicwithouthopeofprofit；
theymustrejecteveryattempttocreateapersonaldependence。
Candour，force，andelevationofmind，inshort，arethepropsofdemocracy；andvirtueistheprincipleofconductrequiredtoitspreservation。
Howbeautifulapre-eminenceonthesideofpopulargovernment！andhowardentlyshouldmankindwishfortheform，ifittendedtoestablishtheprinciple，orwere，ineveryinstance，asureindicationofitspresence！
Butperhapswemusthavepossessedtheprinciple，inorder，withanyhopesofadvantage，toreceivetheform；andwherethefirstisentirelyextinguished，theothermaybefraughtwithevil，ifanyadditionalevildeservestobeshunnedwheremenarealreadyunhappy。
AtConstantinopleorAlgiers，itisamiserablespectaclewhenmenpretendtoactonafootofequality:theyonlymeantoshakeofftherestraintsofgovernment，andtoseizeasmuchastheycanofthatspoil，which，inordinarytimes，isingrossedbythemastertheyserve。
Itisoneadvantageofdemocracy，thattheprincipalgroundofdistinctionbeingpersonalqualities，menareclassedaccordingtotheirabilities，andtothemeritoftheiractions。
Thoughallhaveequalpretensionstopower，yetthestateisactuallygovernedbyafew。Themajorityofthepeople，evenintheircapacityofsovereign，onlypretendtoemploytheirsenses；
tofeel，whenpressedbynationalinconveniencies，orthreatenedbypublicdangers；andwiththeardourwhichisapttoariseincroudedassemblies，tourgethepursuitsinwhichtheyareengaged，ortorepeltheattackswithwhichtheyaremenaced。
Themostperfectequalityofrightscanneverexcludetheascendantofsuperiorminds，northeassembliesofacollectivebodygovernwithoutthedirectionofselectcouncils。Onthisaccount，populargovernmentmaybeconfoundedwitharistocracy。
Butthisalonedoesnotconstitutethecharacterofaristocraticalgovernment。Herethemembersofthestatearedivided，atleast，intotwoclasses；ofwhichoneisdestinedtocommand，theothertoobey。Nomeritsordefectscanraiseorsinkapersonfromoneclasstotheother。Theonlyeffectofpersonalcharacteris，toprocuretheindividualasuitabledegreeofconsiderationwithhisownorder，nottovaryhisrank。
Inonesituationheistaughttoassume，inanothertoyieldthepre-eminence。Heoccupiesthestationofpatronorclient，andiseitherthesovereignorthesubjectofhiscountry。Thewholecitizensmayuniteinexecutingtheplansofstate，butneverindeliberatingonitsmeasures，orenactingitslaws。Whatbelongstothewholepeopleunderdemocracy，ishereconfinedtoapart。
Membersofthesuperiororder，areamongthemselves，possibly，classedaccordingtotheirabilities，butretainaperpetualascendantoverthoseofinferiorstation。Theyareatoncetheservantsandthemastersofthestate，andpaywiththeirpersonalattendanceandtheirbloodforthecivilormilitaryhonourstheyenjoy。
Tomaintainforhimself，andtoadmitinhisfellow-citizen，aperfectequalityofprivilegeandstation，isnolongertheleadingmaximofthememberofsuchacommunity。Therightsofmenaremodifiedbytheircondition。Oneorderclaimsmorethanitiswillingtoyield；theothermustbereadytoyieldwhatitdoesnotassumetoitself:anditiswithgoodreasonthatMrMontesquieugivestotheprincipleofsuchgovernmentsthenameofmoderation，notofvirtue。
Theelevationofoneclassisamoderatedarrogance；thesubmissionoftheotheralimiteddeference。Thefirstmustbecareful，byconcealingtheinvidiouspartoftheirdistinction，topalliatewhatisgrievousinthepublicarrangement，andbytheireducation，theircultivatedmanners，andimprovedtalents，toappearqualifiedforthestationstheyoccupy。Theothermustbetaughttoyield，fromrespectandpersonalattachment，whatcouldnototherwisebeextortedbyforce。Whenthismoderationfailsoneitherside，theconstitutiontotters。Apopulaceenragedtomutiny，mayclaimtherightofequalitytowhichtheyareadmittedindemocraticalstates；oranobilitybentondominion，maychuseamongthemselves，orfindalreadypointedouttothem，asovereign，who，byadvantagesoffortune，popularity，orabilities，isreadytoseizeforhisownfamily，thatenviedpower，whichhasalreadycarriedhisorderbeyondthelimitsofmoderation，andinfectedparticularmenwithaboundlessambition。
Monarchieshaveaccordinglybeenfoundwiththerecentmarksofaristocracy。There，however，themonarchisonlythefirstamongthenobles；hemustbesatisfiedwithalimitedpower；hissubjectsarerangedintoclasses；hefindsoneveryquarterapretencetoprivilege，thatcircumscribeshisauthority；andhefindsaforcesufficienttoconfinehisadministrationwithincertainboundsofequity，anddeterminatelaws。
Undersuchgovernments，however，theloveofequalityispreposterous，andmoderationitselfisunnecessary。Theobjectofeveryrankisprecedency，andeveryordermaydisplayitsadvantagestotheirfullextent。Thesovereignhimselfowesgreatpartofhisauthoritytothesoundingtitlesandthedazzlingequipagewhichheexhibitsinpublic。Thesubordinaterankslayclaimtoimportancebyalikeexhibition，andforthatpurposecarryineveryinstanttheensignsoftheirbirth，ortheornamentsoftheirfortune。Whatelsecouldmarkouttotheindividualtherelationinwhichhestandstohisfellow-subjects，ordistinguishthenumberlessranksthatfilluptheintervalbetweenthestateofthesovereignandthatofthepeasant？Orwhatelsecould，instatesofagreatextent，preserveanyappearanceoforder，amongmembersdisunitedbyambitionandinterest，anddestinedtoformacommunity，withoutthesenseofanycommonconcern？
Monarchiesaregenerallyfound，wherethestateisenlargedinpopulationandinterritory，beyondthenumbersanddimensionsthatareconsistentwithrepublicangovernment。Togetherwiththesecircumstances，greatinequalitiesariseinthedistributionofproperty；andthedesireofpre-eminencebecomesthepredominantpassion。Everyrankwouldexerciseitsprerogative，andthesovereignisperpetuallytemptedtoenlargehisown；ifsubjects，whodespairofprecedence，pleadforequality，heiswillingtofavourtheirclaims，andtoaidtheminprocuringwhatmustweakenaforce，withwhichhehimselfis，onmanyoccasions，obligedtocontend。Intheeventofsuchapolicy，manyinvidiousdistinctionsandgrievancespeculiartomonarchicalgovernment，may，inappearance，beremoved；butthestateofequalitytowhichthesubjectsapproach，isthatofslaves，equallydependentonthewillofamaster，notthatoffreemeninaconditiontomaintaintheirown。
Theprincipleofmonarchy，accordingtoMontesquieu，ishonour。Menmaypossessgoodqualities，elevationofmind，andfortitude；butthesenseofequality，thatwillbearnoincroachmentonthepersonalrightsofthemeanestcitizen；theindignantspirit，thatwillnotcourtaprotection，noracceptasafavour，whatisdueasaright；thepublicaffection，whichisfoundedontheneglectofpersonalconsiderations，areneitherconsistentwiththepreservationoftheconstitution，noragreeabletothehabitsacquiredinanystationassignedtoitsmembers。
Everyconditionispossessedofpeculiardignity，andpointsoutaproprietyofconduct，whichmenofstationareobligedtomaintain。Inthecommerceofsuperiorsandinferiors，itistheobjectofambition，andofvanity，torefineontheadvantagesofrank；while，tofacilitatetheintercourseofpolitesociety，itistheaimofgoodbreeding，todisguiseorrejectthem。
Thoughtheobjectsofconsiderationareratherthedignitiesofstationthanpersonalqualities；thoughfriendshipcannotbeformedbymereinclination，noralliancesbythemerechoiceoftheheart；yetmensounited，andevenwithoutchangingtheirorder，arehighlysusceptibleofmoralexcellence，orliabletomanydifferentdegreesofcorruption。Theymayactavigorouspartasmembersofthestate，anamiableoneinthecommerceofprivatesociety；ortheymayyielduptheirdignityascitizens，evenwhiletheyraisetheirarroganceandpresumptionasprivateparties。
Inmonarchy，allordersofmenderivetheirhonoursfromthecrown；buttheycontinuetoholdthemasaright，andtheyexerciseasubordinatepowerinthestate，foundedonthepermanentranktheyenjoy，andontheattachmentofthosewhomtheyareappointedtoleadandprotect。Thoughtheydonotforcethemselvesintonationalcouncils，andpublicassemblies，andthoughthenameofsenateisunknown；yetthesentimentstheyadoptmusthaveweightwiththesovereign；andeveryindividual，inhisseparatecapacity，insomemeasure，deliberatesforhiscountry。Inwhateverdoesnotderogatefromhisrank，hehasanarmreadytoservethecommunity；inwhateveralarmshissenseofhonour，hehasaversionsanddislikes，whichamounttoanegativeonthewillofhisprince。
Intangledtogetherbythereciprocaltiesofdependenceandprotection，thoughnotcombinedbythesenseofacommoninterest，thesubjectsofmonarchy，likethoseofrepublics，findthemselvesoccupiedasthemembersofanactivesociety，andengagedtotreatwiththeirfellow-creaturesonaliberalfooting。Ifthoseprinciplesofhonourwhichsavetheindividualfromservilityinhisownperson，orfrombecominganengineofoppressioninthehandsofanother，shouldfail；iftheyshouldgivewaytothemaximsofcommerce，totherefinementsofasupposedphilosophy，ortothemisplacedardoursofarepublicanspirit；iftheyarebetrayedbythecowardiceofsubjects，orsubduedbytheambitionofprinces；whatmustbecomeofthenationsofEurope？
Despotismismonarchycorrupted，inwhichacourtandaprinceinappearanceremain，butinwhicheverysubordinaterankisdestroyed；inwhichthesubjectistold，thathehasnorights；thathecannotpossessanyproperty，norfillanystation，independentofthemomentarywillofhisprince。Thesedoctrinesarefoundedonthemaximsofconquest；theymustbeinculcatedwiththewhipandthesword；andarebestreceivedundertheterrorofchainsandimprisonment。Fear，therefore，istheprinciplewhichqualifiesthesubjecttooccupyhisstation:
andthesovereign，whoholdsouttheensignsofterrorsofreelytoothers，hasabundantreasontogivethispassionaprincipalplacewithhimself。Thattenurewhichhehasdevisedfortherightsofothers，issoonappliedtohisown；andfromhiseagerdesiretosecure，ortoextend，hispower，hefindsitbecome，likethefortunesofhispeople，acreatureofmereimaginationandunsettledcaprice。
Whilstwethus，withsomuchaccuracy，canassigntheideallimitsthatmaydistinguishconstitutionsofgovernment，wefindthem，inreality，bothinrespecttotheprincipleandtheform，variouslyblendedtogether。Inwhatsocietyarenotmenclassedbyexternaldistinctions，aswellaspersonalqualities？Inwhatstatearetheynotactuatedbyavarietyofprinciples；justice，honour，moderation，andfear？Itisthepurposeofscience，nottodisguisethisconfusioninitsobject，but，inthemultiplicityandcombinationofparticulars，tofindtheprincipalpointswhichdeserveourattention，andwhich，beingwellunderstood，saveusfromtheembarrassmentwhichthevarietiesofsingularcasesmightotherwisecreate。Inthesamedegreeinwhichgovernmentsrequirementoactfromprinciplesofvirtue，ofhonour，oroffear，theyaremoreorlessfullycomprisedundertheheadsofrepublic，monarchy，ordespotism，andthegeneraltheoryismoreorlessapplicabletotheirparticularcase。
Formsofgovernment，infact，mutuallyapproachorrecedebymany，andofteninsensiblegradations。Democracy，byadmittingcertaininequalitiesofrank，approachestoaristocracy。Inpopular，aswellasaristocraticalgovernments，particularmen，bytheirpersonalauthority，andsometimesbythecreditoftheirfamily，havemaintainedaspeciesofmonarchicalpower。Themonarchislimitedindifferentdegrees:eventhedespoticprinceisonlythatmonarchwhosesubjectsclaimthefewestprivileges，orwhoishimselfbestpreparedtosubduethembyforce。Allthesevarietiesarebutstepsinthehistoryofmankind，andmarkthefleetingandtransientsituationsthroughwhichtheyhavepassed，whilesupportedbyvirtue，ordepressedbyvice。
Perfectdemocracyanddespotismappeartobetheoppositeextremestowhichconstitutionsofgovernmentaresometimescarried。Underthefirst，aperfectvirtueisrequired；underthesecond，atotalcorruptionissupposed:yetinpointofmereform，therebeingnothingfixedintheranksanddistinctionsofmen，beyondthecasualandtemporarypossessionofpower，societieseasilypassfromaconditioninwhicheveryindividualhasanequaltitletoreign，intooneinwhichtheyareequallydestinedtoserve。Thesamequalitiesinboth，courage，popularity，address，andmilitaryconduct，raisetheambitioustoeminence。Withthesequalities，thecitizenortheslaveeasilypassesfromtherankstothecommandofanarmy，fromanobscuretoanillustriousstation。Ineither，asinglepersonmayrulewithunlimitedsway；andinboth，thepopulacemaybreakdowneverybarrieroforder，andrestraintoflaw。
Ifwesupposethattheequalityestablishedamongthesubjectsofadespoticstate，hasinspireditsmemberswithconfidence，intrepidity，andtheloveofjustice；thedespoticprince，havingceasedtobeanobjectoffear，mustsinkamongthecroud。If，onthecontrary，thepersonalequalitywhichisenjoyedbythemembersofademocraticalstate，shouldbevaluedmerelyasanequalpretensiontotheobjectsofavariceandambition，themonarchmaystartupanew，andbesupportedbythosewhomeantoshareinhisprofits。Whenthecovetousandmercenaryassembleinparties，itisofnoconsequenceunderwhatleadertheyinlist，whetherCaesarorPompey；thehopesofrapineorpoweraretheonlymotivesfromwhichtheybecomeattachedtoeither。
Inthedisorderofcorruptedsocieties，thescenehasbeenfrequentlychangedfromdemocracytodespotism，andfromthelasttoo，initsturn，tothefirst。Fromamidstthedemocracyofcorruptmen，andfromasceneoflawlessconfusion，thetyrantascendsathronewitharmsreekinginblood。Buthisabuses，orhisweaknesses，inthestationwhichhehasgained，intheirturn，awakenandgivewaytothespiritofmutinyandrevenge。
Thecriesofmurderanddesolation，whichintheordinarycourseofmilitarygovernmentterrifiedthesubjectinhisprivateretreat，arecarriedthroughthevaults，andmadetopiercethegratesandirondoorsoftheseraglio。Democracyseemstoreviveinasceneofwilddisorderandtumult:butboththeextremesarebutthetransientfitsofparoxysmorlanguorinadistemperedstate。
Ifmenbeanywherearrivedatthismeasureofdepravity，thereappearsnoimmediatehopeofredress。Neithertheascendencyofthemultitude，northatofthetyrant，willsecuretheadministrationofjustice:neitherthelicenceofmeretumult，northecalmofdejectionandservitude，willteachthecitizenthathewasbornforcandourandaffectiontohisfellow-creatures。Andifthespeculativewouldfindthathabitualstateofwarwhichtheyaresometimespleasedtohonourwiththenameofthestateofnature，theywillfinditinthecontestthatsubsistsbetweenthedespoticalprinceandhissubjects，notinthefirstapproachesofarudeandsimpletribetotheconditionandthedomesticarrangementofnations。
NOTES:
1。Rousseau，surl’originedel’in間alit？parmileshommes。
2。Trait？del’esprit。
3。Lafitau，Moeursdessauvages。
4。AbulgazeBhadurChan，HistoryoftheTartars。
5。CollectionofDutchVoyages。
6。Charlevoix，HistoryofCanada。
7。SeeCharlevoix’sHistoryofCanada。
8。Mandeville。
9。Mankind，wearetold，aredevotedtointerest；andthis，inallcommercialnations，isundoubtedlytrue:butitdoesnotfollow，thattheyare，bytheirnaturaldispositions，aversetosocietyandmutualaffection:proofsofthecontraryremain，evenwhereinteresttriumphsmost。Whatmustwethinkoftheforceofthatdispositiontocompassion，tocandour，andgoodwill，which，notwithstandingtheprevailingopinionthatthehappinessofamanconsistsinpossessingthegreatestpossibleshareofriches，preferments，andhonours，stillkeepsthepartieswhoareincompetitionforthoseobjects，onatolerablefootingofamity，andleadsthemtoabstainevenfromtheirownsupposedgood，whentheirseizingitappearsinthelightofadetrimenttoothers？
Whatmightwenotexpectfromthehumanheartincircumstancewhichpreventedthisapprehensiononthesubjectoffortune，orundertheinfluenceofanopinionassteadyandgeneralastheformer，thathumanfelicitydoesnotconsistintheindulgencesofanimalappetite，butinthoseofabenevolentheart；notinfortuneorinterest，butinthecontemptofthisveryobject，inthecourageandfreedomwhicharisefromthiscontempt，joinedtoaresolutechoiceofconduct，directedtothegoodofmankind，ortothegoodofthatparticularsocietytowhichthepartybelongs？
10。PersianLetters。
11。Maupertuis，EssaideMorale。
12。LifeofLordHerbert。
13。LettersoftheRightHonourableLadyM——yW——yM——e。
14。Thesamemaximwillapplythroughouteverypartofnature。Tolove，istoenjoypleasures:Tohate，istobeinpain。
15。Mrs。Carter’stranslationoftheworksofEpictetus。
PartSecondOftheHistoryofRudeNationsSectionI
OftheInformationsonthissubjectwhicharederivedfromAntiquityThehistoryofmankindisconfinedwithinalimitedperiod，andfromeveryquarterbringsanintimationthathumanaffairshavehadabeginning:Nations，distinguishedbythepossessionofarts，andthefelicityoftheirpoliticalestablishments，havebeenderivedfromafeebleoriginal，andstillpreserveintheirstorytheindicationsofaslowandgradualprogress，bywhichthisdistinctionwasgained。Theantiquitiesofeverypeople，howeverdiversified，andhoweverdisguised，containthesameinformationonthispoint。
Insacredhistory，wefindtheparentsofthespecies，asyetasinglepair，sentforthtoinherittheearth，andtoforceasubsistenceforthemselvesamidstthebriersandthornswhichweremadetoaboundonitssurface。Theirrace，whichwasagainreducedtoafew，hadtostrugglewiththedangersthatawaitaweakandinfantspecies；andaftermanyageselapsed，themostrespectablenationstooktheirrisefromoneorafewfamiliesthathadpasturedtheirflocksinthedesert。
TheGreciansderivetheirownoriginfromunsettledtribes，whosefrequentmigrationsareaproofoftherudeandinfantstateoftheircommunities；andwhosewarlikeexploits，somuchcelebratedinstory，onlyexhibitthestruggleswithwhichtheydisputedforthepossessionofacountrytheyafterwards，bytheirtalentforfable，bytheirarts，andtheirpolicy，renderedsofamousinthehistoryofmankind。
Italymusthavebeendividedintomanyrudeandfeeblecantons，whenabandofrobbers，aswearetaughttoconsiderthem，foundasecuresettlementonthebanksoftheTiber，andwhenapeople，yetcomposedonlyofonesex，sustainedthecharacterofanation。Rome，formanyages，saw，fromherwalls，oneveryside，theterritoryofherenemies，andfoundaslittletocheckortostifletheweaknessofherinfantpower，asshedidafterwardstorestraintheprogressofherextendedempire。
LikeaTartaroraScythianhorde，whichhadpitchedonasettlement，thisnascentcommunitywasequal，ifnotsuperior，toeverytribeinitsneighbourhood；andtheoakwhichhascoveredthefieldwithitsshade，wasonceafeebleplantinthenursery，andnottobedistinguishedfromtheweedsbywhichitsearlygrowthwasrestrained。
TheGaulsandtheGermansarecometoourknowledgewiththemarksofasimilarcondition；andtheinhabitantsofBritain，atthetimeofthefirstRomaninvasions，resembled，inmanythings，thepresentnativesofNorthAmerica:theywereignorantofagriculture；theypaintedtheirbodies；andusedforcloathing，theskinsofbeasts。
Suchthereforeappearstohavebeenthecommencementofhistorywithallnations，andinsuchcircumstancesarewetolookfortheoriginalcharacterofmankind。Theinquiryreferstoadistantperiod，andeveryconclusionshouldbuildonthefactswhicharepreservedforouruse。Ourmethod，notwithstanding，toofrequently，istorestthewholeonconjecture；toimputeeveryadvantageofournaturetothoseartswhichweourselvespossess；
andtoimagine，thatamerenegationofallourvirtuesisasufficientdescriptionofmaninhisoriginalstate。Weareourselvesthesupposedstandardsofpolitenessandcivilization；
andwhereourownfeaturesdonotappear，weapprehend，thatthereisnothingwhichdeservestobeknown。Butitisprobablethathere，asinmanyothercases，weareillqualified，fromoursupposedknowledgeofcauses，toprognosticateeffects，ortodeterminewhatmusthavebeenthepropertiesandoperations，evenofourownnature，intheabsenceofthosecircumstancesinwhichwehaveseenitengaged。Whowould，frommereconjecture，suppose，thatthenakedsavagewouldbeacoxcombandagamester？
thathewouldbeproudandvain，withoutthedistinctionsoftitleandfortune？andthathisprincipalcarewouldbetoadornhisperson，andtofindanamusement？Evenifitcouldbesuppliedthathewouldthusshareinourvices，and，inthemidstofhisforest，viewiththefollieswhicharepractisedinthetown；yetnoonewouldbesoboldastoaffirm，thathewouldlikewise，inanyinstance，excelusintalentsandvirtues；thathewouldhaveapenetration，aforceofimaginationandelocution，anardourofmind，anaffectionandcourage，whichthearts，thediscipline，andthepolicyoffewnationswouldbeabletoimprove。Yettheseparticularsareapartinthedescriptionwhichisdeliveredbythosewhohavehadopportunitiesofseeingmankindintheirrudestcondition:andbeyondthereachofsuchtestimony，wecanneithersafelytake，norpretendtogive，informationonthesubject。
Ifconjecturesandopinionsformedatadistance，havenotsufficientauthorityinthehistoryofmankind，thedomesticantiquitiesofeverynationmust，forthisveryreason，bereceivedwithcaution。Theyare，formostpart，themereconjecturesorthefictionsofsubsequentages；andevenwhereatfirsttheycontainedsomeresemblanceoftruth，theystillvarywiththeimaginationofthosebywhomtheyaretransmitted，andineverygenerationreceiveadifferentform。Theyaremadetobearthestampofthetimesthroughwhichtheyhavepassedintheformoftradition，notoftheagestowhichtheirpretendeddescriptionsrelate。Theinformationtheybring，isnotlikethelightreflectedfromamirrour，whichdelineatestheobjectfromwhichitoriginallycame；but，likeraysthatcomebrokenanddispersedfromanopaqueorunpolishedsurface，onlygivethecoloursandfeaturesofthebodyfromwhichtheywerelastreflected。
Whentraditionaryfablesarerehearsedbythevulgar，theybearthemarksofanationalcharacter；andthoughmixedwithabsurdities，oftenraisetheimagination，andmovetheheart:
whenmadethematerialsofpoetry，andadornedbytheskillandtheeloquenceofanardentandsuperiormind，theyinstructtheunderstanding，aswellasengagethepassions。Itisonlyinthemanagementofmereantiquaries，orstriptoftheornamentswhichthelawsofhistoryforbidthemtowear，thattheybecomeevenunfittoamusethefancy，ortoserveanypurposewhatever。ItwereabsurdtoquotethefableoftheIliadOrtheOdyssey，thelegendsofHercules，Theseus，orOedipus，asauthoritiesinmatteroffactrelatingtothehistoryofmankind；buttheymay，withgreatjustice，becitedtoascertainwhatweretheconceptionsandsentimentsoftheageinwhichtheywerecomposed，ortocharacterisethegeniusofthatpeople，withwhoseimaginationstheywereblended，andbywhomtheywerefondlyrehearsedandadmired。
Inthismannerfictionmaybeadmittedtovouchforthegeniusofnations，whilehistoryhasnothingtoofferthatisintitledtocredit。TheGreekfableaccordinglyconveyingacharacterofitsauthors，throwslightonanageofwhichnootherrecordremains。Thesuperiorityofthispeopleisindeedinnocircumstancemoreevidentthaninthestrainoftheirfictions，andinthestoryofthosefabulousheroes，poets，andsages，whosetales，beinginventedorembellishedbyanimaginationalreadyfilledwiththesubjectforwhichtheherowascelebrated，servedtoinflamethatardententhusiasmwithwhichthispeopleafterwardsproceededinthepursuitofeverynationalobject。
Itwasnodoubtofgreatadvantagetothosenations，thattheirsystemoffablewasoriginal，andbeingalreadyreceivedinpopulartraditions，servedtodiffusethoseimprovementsofreason，imagination，andsentiment，whichwereafterwards，bymenofthefinesttalents，madeonthefableitself，orconveyedinitsmoral。Thepassionsofthepoetpervadedthemindsofthepeople，andtheconceptionsofmenofgeniusbeingcommunicatedtothevulgar，becametheincentivesofanationalspirit。
Amythologyborrowedfromabroad，aliteraturefoundedonreferencestoastrangecountry，andfraughtwithforeignallusions，aremuchmoreconfinedintheiruse:theyspeaktothelearnedalone；andthoughintendedtoinformtheunderstanding，andtomendtheheart，may，bybeingconfinedtoafew，haveanoppositeeffect:theymayfosterconceitontheruinsofcommonsense，andrenderwhatwas，atleastinnocently，sungbytheAthenianmarinerathisoar，orrehearsedbytheshepherdinattendinghisflock，anoccasionofvice，andthefoundationofpedantryandscholasticpride。
Ourverylearning，perhaps，whereitsinfluenceextends，serves，insomemeasure，todepressournationalspirit。Ourliteraturebeingderivedfromnationsofadifferentrace，whoflourishedatatimewhenourancestorswereinastateofbarbarity，andconsequentlywhentheyweredespisedbythosewhohadattainedtotheliteraryarts，hasgivenrisetoahumblingopinion，thatweourselvesaretheoffspringofmeanandContemptiblenations，withwhomthehumanimaginationandsentimenthadnoeffect，tillthegeniuswasinamannerinspiredbyexamples，anddirectedbylessonsthatwerebroughtfromabroad。TheRomans，fromwhomouraccountsarechieflyderived，haveadmitted，intherudenessoftheirownancestors，asystemofvirtues，whichallsimplenationsperhapsequallypossess；acontemptofriches，loveoftheircountry，patienceofhardship，danger，andfatigue。Theyhave，notwithstanding，vilifiedourancestorsforhavingperhapsonlyresembledtheirown；atleast，inthedefectoftheirarts，andintheneglectofconveniencieswhichthoseartsareemployedtoprocure。
ItisfromtheGreekandtheRomanhistorians，however，thatwehavenotonlythemostauthenticandinstructive，buteventhemostengaging，representationsofthetribesfromwhomwedescend。Thosesublimeandintelligentwritersunderstoodhumannature，andcouldcollectitsfeatures，andexhibititscharactersineverysituation。TheywereillsucceededinthistaskbytheearlyhistoriansofmodernEurope；who，generallybredtotheprofessionofmonks，andconfinedtothemonasticlife，appliedthemselvestorecordwhattheywerepleasedtodenominatefacts，whiletheysufferedtheproductionsofgeniustoperish，andwereunable，eitherbythemattertheyselected，orthestyleoftheircompositions，togiveanyrepresentationoftheactivespiritofmankindinanycondition。Withthem，anarrationwassupposedtoconstitutehistory，whilstitdidnotconveyanyknowledgeofmen；andhistoryitselfwasallowedtobecomplete，while，amidsttheeventsandthesuccessionofprincesthatarerecordedintheorderoftime，wearelefttolookinvainforthosecharacteristicoftheunderstandingandtheheart，whichalone，ineveryhumantransaction，renderthestoryeitherengagingoruseful。
Wethereforewillinglyquitthehistoryofourearlyancestors，whereCaesarandTacitushavedroppedthem；andperhaps，tillwecomewithinthereachofwhatisconnectedwithpresentaffairs，andmakesapartinthesystemonwhichwenowproceed，havelittlereasontoexpectanysubjecttointerestorinformthemind。Wehavenoreason，however，fromhencetoconclude，thatthematteritselfwasmorebarren，orthesceneofhumanaffairslessinteresting，inmodernEurope，thanithasbeenoneverystagewheremankindwereengagedtoexhibitthemovementsoftheheart，theeffortsofgenerosity，magnanimity，andcourage。
Thetrialofwhatthoseagescontained，isnotevenfairlymade，whenmenofgeniusanddistinguishedabilities，withtheaccomplishmentsofalearnedandapolishedage，collectthematerialstheyhavefound，and，withthegreatestsuccess，connectthestoryofilliterateageswithtransactionsofalaterdate:itisdifficultevenforthem，underthenameswhichareappliedinanewstateofsociety，toconveyajustapprehensionofwhatmankindwereinsituationssodifferent，andintimessoremotefromtheirown。
Inderivingfromhistoriansofthischaractertheinstructionwhichtheirwritingsarefittobestow，wearefrequentlytoforgetthegeneraltermsthatareemployed，inordertocollecttherealmannersofanage，fromtheminutecircumstancesthatareoccasionallypresented。ThetitlesofRoyalandNoblewereapplicabletothefamiliesofTarquin，Collatinus，andCincinnatus；butLucretiawasemployedindomesticindustrywithhermaids，andCincinnatusfollowedtheplough。Thedignities，andeventheoffices，ofcivilsociety，wereknownmanyagesago，inEurope，bytheirpresentappellations；butwefindinthehistoryofEngland，thatakingandhiscourtbeingassembledtosolemnizeafestival，anoutlaw，whohadsubsistedbyrobbery，cametoshareinthefeast。Thekinghimselfarosetoforcethisunworthyguestfromthecompany，ascuffleensuedbetweenthem，andthekingwaskilled。(1*)Achancellorandprimeminister，whosemagnificenceandsumptuousfurniturewerethesubjectofadmirationandenvy，hadhisapartmentscoveredeverydayinwinterwithcleanstrawandhay，andinsummerwithgreenrushesorboughs。Eventhesovereignhimself，inthoseages，wasprovidedwithforageforhisbed。(2*)Thesepicturesquefeaturesandcharacteristicalstrokesofthetimes，recaltheimaginationfromthesupposeddistinctionofmonarchandsubject，tothatstateofroughfamiliarityinwhichourancestorslived，andunderwhichtheyacted，withaviewtoobjects，andonprinciplesofconduct，whichweseldomcomprehend，whenweareemployedtorecordtheirtransactions，ortostudytheircharacters。
Thucydides，notwithstandingtheprejudiceofhiscountryagainstthenameofBarbarian，understoodthatitwasinthecustomsofbarbarousnationshewastostudythemoreancientmannersofGreece。
TheRomansmighthavefoundanimageoftheirownancestors，intherepresentationstheyhavegivenofours:andifeveranArabclanshallbecomeacivilizednation，oranyAmericantribeescapethepoisonwhichisadministeredbyourtradersofEurope，itmaybefromtherelationsofthepresenttimes，andthedescriptionswhicharenowgivenbytravellers，thatsuchapeople，inafterages，maybestcollecttheaccountsoftheirorigin。Itisintheirpresentcondition，thatwearetobehold，asinamirrour，thefeaturesofourownprogenitors；andfromthencewearetodrawourconclusionswithrespecttotheinfluenceofsituations，inwhich，wehavereasontobelieve，ourfatherswereplaced。
WhatshoulddistinguishaGermanoraBriton，inthehabitsofhismindorhisbody，inhismannersorapprehensions，fromanAmerican，who，likehim，withhisbowandhisdart，islefttotraversetheforest；andinalikesevereorvariableclimate，isobligedtosubsistbythechace？
If，inadvancedyears，wewouldformajustnotionofourprogressfromthecradle，wemusthavereCoursetothenursery，andfromtheexampleofthosewhoarestillintheperiodoflifewemeantodescribe，takeourrepresentationofpastmanners，thatcannot，inanyotherway，berecalled。
SectionII
OfRudeNationspriortotheEstablishmentofPropertyFromonetotheotherextremityofAmerica；fromKamschatkawestwardtotheriverOby，andfromtheNorthernsea，overthatlengthofcountry，totheconfinesofChina，ofIndia，andPersia；fromtheCaspiantotheRedsea，withlittleexception，andfromthenceovertheinlandcontinentandthewesternshoresofAfrica；weeverywheremeetwithnationsonwhomwebestowtheappellationsofbarbarousorsavage。Thatextensivetractoftheearth，containingsogreatavarietyofsituation，climate，andsoil，should，inthemannersofitsinhabitants，exhibitallthediversitieswhicharisefromtheunequalinfluenceofthesun，joinedtoadifferentnourishmentandmanneroflife。Everyquestion，however，onthissubjectispremature，tillwehavefirstendeavouredtoformsomegeneralconceptionofourspeciesinitsrudestate，andhavelearnedtodistinguishmereignorancefromdullness，andthewantofartsfromthewantofcapacity。
Ofthenationswhodwellinthose，oranyotherofthelesscultivatedpartsoftheearth，someintrusttheirsubsistencechieflytohunting，fishing，orthenaturalproduceofthesoil。
Theyhavelittleattentiontoproperty，andscarcelyanybeginningsofsubordinationorgovernment。Othershavingpossessedthemselvesofherds，anddependingfortheirprovisiononpasture，knowwhatitistobepoorandrich。Theyknowtherelationsofpatronandclient，ofservantandmaster，andsufferthemselvestobeclassedaccordingtotheirmeasuresofwealth。
Thisdistinctionmustcreateamaterialdifferenceofcharacter，andmayfurnishtwoseparateheads，underwhichtoconsiderthehistoryofmankindintheirrudeststate；thatofthesavage，whoisnotyetacquaintedwithproperty；andthatofthebarbarian，towhomitis，althoughnotascertainedbylaws，aprincipalobjectofcareanddesire。
Itmustappearveryevident，thatpropertyisamatterofprogress。Itrequires，amongotherparticularswhicharetheeffectsoftime，somemethodofdefiningpossession。Theverydesireofitproceedsfromexperience；andtheindustrybywhichitisgained，orimproved，requiressuchahabitofactingwithaviewtodistantobjects，asmayovercomethepresentdispositioneithertoslothortoenjoyment。Thishabitisslowlyacquired，andisinrealityaprincipaldistinctionofnationsintheadvancedstateofmechanicandcommercialarts。
Inatribewhichsubsistsbyhuntingandfishing，thearms，theutensils，andthefur，whichtheindividualcarries，aretohimtheonlysubjectsofproperty。Thefoodofto-morrowisyetwildintheforest，orhidinthelake；itcannotbeappropriatedbeforeitiscaught；andeventhen，beingthepurchaseofnumbers，whofishorhuntinabody，itaccruestothecommunity，andisappliedtoimmediateuse，orbecomesanaccessiontothestoresofthepublic。
Wheresavagenations，asinmostpartsofAmerica，mixwiththepracticeofhuntingsomespeciesofrudeagriculture，theystillfollow，withrespecttothesoilandthefruitsoftheearth，theanalogyoftheirprincipalobject。Asthemenhunt，sothewomenlabourtogether；and，aftertheyhavesharedthetoilsoftheseed-time。theyenjoythefruitsoftheharvestincommon。
Thefieldinwhichtheyhaveplanted，likethedistrictoverwhichtheyareaccustomedtohunt，isclaimedasapropertybythenation，butisnotparcelledinlotstoitsmembers。Theygoforthinpartiestopreparetheground，toplant，andtoreap。
Theharvestisgatheredintothepublicgranary，andfromthence，atstatedtimes，isdividedintosharesforthemaintenanceofseparatefamilies。(3*)Eventhereturnsofthemarket，whentheytradewithforeigners，arebroughthometothestockofthenation。(4*)
Asthefurandthebowpertaintotheindividual，thecabbinanditsutensilsareappropriatedtothefamily；andasthedomesticcaresarecommittedtothewomen，sothepropertyofthehouseholdseemslikewisetobevestedinthem。Thechildrenareconsideredaspertainingtothemother，withlittleregardtodescentonthefather’sside。Themales，beforetheyaremarried，remaininthecabbininwhichtheyareborn；butaftertheyhaveformedanewconnectionwiththeothersex，theychangetheirhabitation，andbecomeanaccessiontothefamilyinwhichtheyhavefoundtheirwives。Thehunterandthewarriorarenumberedbythematronasapartofhertreasure；theyarereservedforperilsandtryingoccasions；andintherecessofpubliccouncils，intheintervalsofhuntingorwar，aremaintainedbythecaresofthewomen，andloiteraboutinmereamusementorsloth。(5*)
Whileonesexcontinuetovaluethemselveschieflyontheircourage，theirtalentforpolicy，andtheirwarlikeachievements，thisspeciesofpropertywhichisbestowedontheother，isinrealityamarkofsubjection；not，assomewritersalledge，oftheirhavingacquiredanascendant。’(6*)Itisthecareandtroubleofasubjectwithwhichthewarriordoesnotchusetobeembarrassed。Itisaservitude，andacontinualtoil，wherenohonoursarewon；andtheywhoseprovinceitis，areinfacttheslavesandthehelotsoftheircountryIfinthisdestinationofthesexes；whilethemencontinuetoindulgethemselvesinthecontemptofsordidandmercenaryarts，thecruelestablishmentofslaveryisforsomeagesdeferred；ifinthistender，thoughunequalalliance，theaffectionsoftheheartpreventtheseveritiespractisedonslaves；wehaveinthecustomitself，asperhapsinmanyotherinstances，reasontopreferthefirstsuggestionsofnature，tomanyofherafterrefinements。
Ifmankind，inanyinstance，continuethearticleofpropertyonthefootingwehavenowrepresented，wemayeasilycreditwhatisfartherreportedbytravellers，thattheyadmitofnodistinctionsofrankorcondition；andthattheyhaveinfactnodegreeofsubordinationdifferentfromthedistributionoffunction，whichfollowsthedifferencesofage，talents，anddispositions。Personalqualitiesgiveanascendantinthemidstofoccasionswhichrequiretheirexertion；butintimesofrelaxation，leavenovestigeofpowerorprerogative。Awarriorwhohasledtheyouthofhisnationtotheslaughteroftheirenemies，orwhohasbeenforemostinthechace，returnsuponalevelwiththerestofhistribe；andwhentheonlybusinessistosleep，ortofeed，canenjoynopre-eminence；forhesleepsandhefeedsnobetterthanthey。
Wherenoprofitattendsdominion，onepartyisasmuchaversetothetroubleofperpetualcommand，astheotheristothemortificationofperpetualsubmission:’Ilovevictory，Ilovegreatactions，’saysMontesquieuinthecharacterofSylla；’buthavenorelishforthelanguiddetailofpacificgovernment，orthepageantryofhighstation。’Hehastouchedperhapswhatisaprevailingsentimentinthesimpleststateofsociety，whentheweaknessofmotivessuggestedbyinterest，andtheignoranceofanyelevationnotfoundedonmerit，suppliestheplaceofdisdain。Thecharacterofthemind，however，inthisstate，isnotfoundedonignorancealone。Menareconsciousoftheirequality，andaretenaciousofitsrights。Evenwhentheyfollowaleadertothefield，theycannotbrookthepretensionstoaformalcommand:theylistentonoorders；andtheycomeundernomilitaryengagements，butthoseofmutualfidelity，andequalardourintheenterprise。(7*)
Thisdescription，wemaybelieve，isunequallyapplicabletodifferentnations，whohavemadeunequaladvancesintheestablishmentofproperty。AmongtheCaribbees，andtheothernativesofthewarmerclimatesinAmerica，thedignityofchieftainishereditary，orelective，andcontinuedforlife:theunequaldistributionofpropertycreatesavisiblesubordination。(8*)ButamongtheIroquois，andothernationsofthetemperatezone，thetitlesofmagistrateandsubject，ofnobleandmean，areaslittleknownasthoseofrichandpoor。
Theoldmen，withoutbeinginvestedwithanycoercivepower，employtheirnaturalauthorityinadvisingorinpromptingtheresolutionsoftheirtribe:themilitaryleaderispointedoutbythesuperiorityofhismanhoodandvalour:thestatesmanisdistinguishedonlybytheattentionwithwhichhiscounselisheard；thewarriorbytheconfidencewithwhichtheyouthofhisnationfollowhimtothefield:andiftheirconcertsmustbesupposedtoconstituteaspeciesofpoliticalgovernment，itisonetowhichnolanguageofourscanbeapplied。Powerisnomorethanthenaturalascendencyofthemind；thedischargeofofficenomorethananaturalexerciseofthepersonalcharacter；andwhilethecommunityactswithanappearanceoforder，thereisnosenseofdisparityinthebreastofanyofitsmembers。(9*)
Inthesehappy，thoughinformal，proceedings，whereagealonegivesaplaceinthecouncil；whereyouth，ardour，andvalourinthefield，giveatitletothestationofleader；wherethewholecommunityisassembledonanyalarmingoccasion，wemayventuretosay，thatwehavefoundtheoriginofthesenate，theexecutivepower，andtheassemblyofthepeople；institutionsforwhichancientlegislatorshavebeensomuchrenowned。ThesenateamongtheGreeks，aswellastheLatins，appears，fromtheetymologyofitsname，tohavebeenoriginallycomposedofelderlymen。ThemilitaryleaderatRome，inamannernotunliketothatoftheAmericanwarrior，proclaimedhislevies，andthecitizenpreparedforthefield，inconsequenceofavoluntaryengagement。Thesuggestionsofnature，whichdirectedthepolicyofnationsinthewildsofAmerica，werefollowedbeforeonthebanksoftheEurotasandtheTyber；andLycurgusandRomulusfoundthemodeloftheirinstitutionswherethemembersofeveryrudenationfindtheearliestmodeofunitingtheirtalents，andcombiningtheirforces。
AmongtheNorth-Americannations，everyindividualisindependent；butheisengagedbyhisaffectionsandhishabitsinthecaresofafamily。Families，likesomanyseparatetribes，aresubjecttonoinspectionorgovernmentfromabroad；whateverpassesathome，evenbloodshedandmurder，areonlysupposedtoconcernthemselves。Theyare，inthemeantime，thepartsofacanton；thewomenassembletoplanttheirmaize；theoldmengotocouncil；thehuntsmanandthewarriorjoinstheyouthofhisvillageinthefield。Manysuchcantonsassembletoconstituteanationalcouncil，ortoexecuteanationalenterprise。WhentheEuropeansmadetheirfirstsettlementsinAmerica，sixsuchnationshadformedaleague，hadtheiramphyctionesorstates-general，and，bythefirmnessoftheirunion，andtheabilityoftheircouncils，hadobtainedanascendantfromthemouthoftheStLaurencetothatoftheMississippi。(10*)Theyappearedtounderstandtheobjectsoftheconfederacy，aswellasthoseoftheseparatenation；theystudiedabalanceofpower；
thestatesmanofonecountrywatchedthedesignsandproceedingsofanother；andoccasionallythrewtheweightofhistribeintoadifferentscale。Theyhadtheiralliancesandtheirtreaties，which，likethenationsofEurope，theymaintained，ortheybroke，uponreasonsofstate；andremainedatpeacefromasenseofnecessityorexpediency，andwenttowaruponanyemergenceofprovocationorjealousy。
Thus，withoutanysettledformofgovernment，oranybondofunion，butwhatresembledmorethesuggestionofinstinct，thantheinventionofreason，theyconductedthemselveswiththeconcert，andtheforce，ofnations。Foreigners，withoutbeingabletodiscoverwhoisthemagistrate，orinwhatmannerthesenateiscomposed，alwaysfindacouncilwithwhomtheymaytreat，orabandofwarriorswithwhomtheymayfight。Withoutpoliceorcompulsorylaws，theirdomesticsocietyisconductedwithorder，andtheabsenceofviciousdispositions，isabettersecuritythananypublicestablishmentforthesuppressionofcrimes。
Disorders，however，sometimesoccur，especiallyintimesofdebauch，whentheimmoderateuseofintoxicatingliquors，towhichtheyareextremelyaddicted，suspendstheordinarycautionoftheirdemeanour，andinflamingtheirviolentpassions，engagestheminquarrelsandbloodshed。Whenapersonisslain，hismurdererisseldomcalledtoanimmediateaccount:buthehasaquarreltosustainwiththefamilyandthefriends；orifastranger，withthecountrymenofthedeceased；sometimesevenwithhisownnationathome，iftheinjurycommittedbeofakindtoalarmthesociety。Thenation，thecanton，orthefamily，endeavour，bypresents，toatonefortheoffenceofanyoftheirmembers；and，bypacifyingthepartiesaggrieved，endeavourtopreventwhatalarmsthecommunitymorethanthefirstdisorder，thesubsequenteffectsofrevengeandanimosity。(11*)Thesheddingofblood，however，iftheguiltypersonremainwherehehascommittedthecrime，seldomescapesunpunished:thefriendofthedeceasedknowshowtodisguise，thoughnottosuppress，hisresentment；andevenaftermanyyearshaveelapsed，issuretorepaytheinjurythatwasdonetohiskindredorhishouse。
Theseconsiderationsrenderthemcautiousandcircumspect，putthemontheirguardagainsttheirpassions，andgivetotheirordinarydeportmentanairofphlegmandcomposuresuperiortowhatispossessedamongpolishednations。Theyare，inthemeantime，affectionateintheircarriage，andintheirconversationspayamutualattentionandregard，saysCharlevoix，moretenderandmoreengaging，thanwhatweprofessintheceremonialofpolishedsocieties。
Thiswriterhasobserved，thatthenationsamongwhomhetravelledinNorthAmerica，nevermentionedactsofgenerosityorkindnessunderthenotionofduty。Theyactedfromaffection，astheyactedfromappetite，withoutregardtoitsconsequences。
Whentheyhaddoneakindness，theyhadgratifiedadesire；thebusinesswasfinished，andpassedfromthememory。Whentheyreceivedafavour，itmight，oritmightnot，provetheoccasionoffriendship:ifitdidnot，thepartiesappearedtohavenoapprehensionsofgratitude，asadutybywhichtheonewasboundtomakeareturn，ortheotherintitledtoreproachthepersonwhohadfailedinhispart。Thespiritwithwhichtheygiveorreceivepresents，isthesamewhichTacitusobservedamongtheancientGermans:Theydelightinthem，butdonotconsiderthemasmatterofobligation。(12*)Suchgiftsareoflittleconsequence，exceptwhenemployedasthesealofabargainortreaty。
Itwastheirfavouritemaxim，Thatnomanisnaturallyindebtedtoanother；thatheisnot，therefore，obligedtobearwithanyimposition，orunequal(13*)treatment。Thus，inaprincipleapparentlysullenandinhospitable，theyhavediscoveredthefoundationofjustice，andobserveitsrules，withasteadinessandcandourwhichnocultivationhasbeenfoundtoimprove。Thefreedomwhichtheygiveinwhatrelatestothesupposeddutiesofkindnessandfriendship，servesonlytoengagetheheartmoreentirely，whereitisoncepossessedwithaffection。Welovetochuseourobjectwithoutanyrestraint，andweconsiderkindnessitselfasatask，whenthedutiesoffriendshipareexactedbyrule。Wetherefore，byourdemandforattentions，rathercorruptthanimprovethesystemofmorality；
andbyourexactionsofgratitude，andourfrequentproposalstoinforceitsobservance，weonlyshew，thatwehavemistakenitsnature；weonlygivesymptomsofthatgrowingsensibilitytointerest，fromwhichwemeasuretheexpediencyoffriendshipandgenerosityitself；andbywhichwewouldintroducethespiritoftrafficintothecommerceofaffection。Inconsequenceofthisproceeding，weareoftenobligedtodeclineafavourwiththesamespiritthatwethrowoffaservileengagement，orrejectabribe。Totheunrefiningsavageeveryfavouriswelcome，andeverypresentreceivedwithoutreserveorreflection。
Theloveofequality，andtheloveofjustice，wereoriginallythesame:andalthough，bytheconstitutionofdifferentsocieties，unequalprivilegesarebestowedontheirmembers；andalthoughjusticeitselfrequiresaproperregardtobepaidtosuchprivileges；yethewhohasforgottenthatmenwereoriginallyequal，easilydegeneratesintoaslave；orinthecapacityofamaster，isnottobetrustedwiththerightsofhisfellow-creatures。Thishappyprinciplegivestotheminditssenseofindependence，rendersitindifferenttothefavourswhichareinthepowerofothermen，checksitinthecommissionofinjuries，andleavestheheartopentotheaffectionsofgenerosityandkindness。ItgivestotheuntutoredAmericanthatairofcandour，andofregardtothewelfareofothers，which，insomedegree，softensthearrogantprideofhiscarriage，andintimesofconfidenceandpeace，withouttheassistanceofgovernmentorlaw，renderstheapproachandcommerceofstrangerssecure。
Amongthispeople，thefoundationsofhonourareeminentabilitiesandgreatfortitude；notthedistinctionsofequipageandfortune:Thetalentsinesteemaresuchastheirsituationleadsthemtoemploy，theexactknowledgeofacountry，andstratageminwar。Onthesequalifications，acaptainamongtheCaribbeesunderwentanexamination。Whenanewleaderwastobechosen，ascoutwassentforthtotraversetheforestswhichledtotheenemy’scountry，and，uponhisreturn，thecandidatewasdesiredtofindthetrackinwhichhehadtravelled。Abrook，orafountain，wasnamedtohimonthefrontier，andhewasdesiredtofindthenearestpathtoaparticularstation，andtoplantastakeintheplace。(14*)Theycan，accordingly，traceawildbeast，orthehumanfoot，overmanyleaguesofapathlessforest，andfindtheirwayacrossawoodyanduninhabitedcontinent，bymeansofrefinedobservations，whichescapethetravellerwhohasbeenaccustomedtodifferentaids。Theysteerinslendercanoes，acrossstormyseas，withadexterityequaltothatofthemostexperiencedpilot。(15*)Theycarryapenetratingeyeforthethoughtsandintentionsofthosewithwhomtheyhavetodeal；andwhentheymeantodeceive，theycoverthemselveswithartswhichthemostsubtilecanseldomelude。Theyharangueintheirpubliccouncilswithanervousandfigurativeelocution；andconductthemselvesinthemanagementoftheirtreatieswithaperfectdiscernmentoftheirnationalinterests。
Thusbeingablemastersinthedetailoftheirownaffairs，andwellqualifiedtoacquitthemselvesonparticularoccasions，theystudynoscience，andgoinpursuitofnogeneralprinciples。Theyevenseemincapableofattendingtoanydistantconsequences，beyondthosetheyhaveexperiencedinhuntingorwar。Theyintrusttheprovisionofeveryseasontoitself；
consumethefruitsoftheearthinsummer；and，inwinter，aredriveninquestoftheirprey，throughwoods，andoverdesertscoveredwithsnow。Theydonotforminonehourthosemaximswhichmaypreventtheerrorsofthenext；andtheyfailinthoseapprehensions，which，intheintervalsofpassion，produceingenuousshame，compassion，remorse，oracommandofappetite。
Theyareseldommadetorepentofanyviolence；norisaperson，indeed，thoughtaccountableinhissobermood，forwhathedidintheheatofapassion，orinatimeofdebauch。
Theirsuperstitionsaregrovelingandmean:anddidthishappenamongrudenationsalone，wecouldnotsufficientlyadmiretheeffectsofpoliteness；butitisasubjectonwhichfewnationsareintitledtocensuretheirneighbours。Whenwehaveconsideredthesuperstitionsofonepeople，wefindlittlevarietyinthoseofanother。Theyarebutarepetitionofsimilarweaknessesandabsurdities，derivedfromacommonsource，aperplexedapprehensionofinvisibleagents，thataresupposedtoguideallprecariouseventstowhichhumanforesightcannotextend。
Inwhatdependsontheknownortheregularcourseofnature，themindtruststoitself；butinstrangeanduncommonsituations，itisthedupeofitsownperplexity，and，insteadofrelyingonitsprudenceorcourage，hasrecoursetodivination，andavarietyofobservances，that，forbeingirrational，arealwaysthemorerevered。Superstitionbeingfoundedindoubtsandanxiety，isfosteredbyignoranceandmystery。Itsmaxims，inthemeantime，arenotalwaysconfoundedwiththoseofcommonlife；
nordoesitsweaknessorfollyalwayspreventthewatchfulness，penetration，andcourage，menareaccustomedtoemployinthemanagementofcommonaffairs。ARomanconsultingfuturitybythepeckingofbirds，oraKingofSpartainspectingtheintrailsofabeast，Mithridatesconsultinghiswomenontheinterpretationofhisdreams，areexamplessufficienttoprove，thatachildishimbecilityonthissubjectisconsistentwiththegreatestmilitaryandpoliticaltalents。
Confidenceintheeffectofsuperstitiousobservancesisnotpeculiartoanyageornation。Few，evenoftheaccomplishedGreeksandRomans，wereabletoshakeoffthisweakness。Intheircase，itwasnotremovedbythehighestmeasuresofcivilization。
Ithasyieldedonlytothelightoftruereligion，ortothestudyofnature，bywhichweareledtosubstituteawiseprovidenceoperatingbyphysicalcauses，intheplaceofphantomsthatterrifyoramusetheignorant。
TheprincipalpointofhonouramongtherudenationsofAmerica，asindeedineveryinstancewheremankindarenotgreatlycorrupted，isfortitude。Yettheirwayofmaintainingthispointofhonour，isverydifferentfromthatofthenationsofEurope。Theirordinarymethodofmakingwarisbyambuscade；
andtheystrive，byover-reachinganenemy，tocommitthegreatestslaughter，ortomakethegreatestnumberofprisoners，withtheleasthazardtothemselves。Theydeemitafollytoexposetheirownpersonsinassaultinganenemy，anddonotrejoiceinvictorieswhicharestainedwiththebloodoftheirownpeople。Theydonotvaluethemselves，asinEurope，ondefyingtheirenemyuponequalterms。Theyevenboast，thattheyapproachlikefoxes，orthattheyflylikebirds，notlessthanthattheydevourlikelions。InEurope，tofallinbattleisaccountedanhonour；amongthenativesofAmerica，itisreckoneddisgraceful。(16*)Theyreservetheirfortitudeforthetrialstheyabidewhenattackedbysurprise，orwhenfallenintotheirenemieshands；andwhentheyareobligedtomaintaintheirownhonour，andthatoftheirnation，inthemidstoftormentsthatrequireeffortsofpatiencemorethanofvalour。
Ontheseoccasions，theyarefarfromallowingittobesupposedthattheywishtodeclinetheconflict。Itisheldinfamoustoavoidit，evenbyavoluntarydeath；andthegreatestaffrontwhichcanbeofferedtoaprisoner，istorefusehimthehonoursofaman，inthemannerofhisexecution:’With-hold’，saysanoldman，inthemidstofhistorture，’thestabsofyourknife；ratherletmediebyfire，thatthosedogs，yourallies，frombeyondtheseas，maylearntosufferlikemen。’(17*)Withtermsofdefiance，thevictim，inthosesolemntrials，commonlyexcitestheanimosityofhistormentors，aswellashisown；andwhilstwesufferforhumannature，undertheeffectofitserrors，wemustadmireitsforce。
Thepeoplewithwhomthispracticeprevailed，werecommonlydesirousofrepairingtheirownlosses，byadoptingprisonersofwarintotheirfamilies:andeveninthelastmoment，thehandwhichwasraisedtotorment，frequentlygavethesignofadoption，bywhichtheprisonerbecamethechildorthebrotherofhisenemy，andcametoshareinalltheprivilegesofacitizen。Intheirtreatmentofthosewhosuffered，theydidnotappeartobeguidedbyprinciplesofhatredorrevenge:theyobservedthepointofhonourinapplyingaswellasinbearingtheirtorments；and，byastrangekindofaffectionandtenderness，weredirectedtobemostcruelwheretheyintendedthehighestrespect:thecowardwasputtoimmediatedeathbythehandsofwomen:thevaliantwassupposedtobeintitledtoallthetrialsoffortitudethatmencouldinventoremploy。’Itgavemejoy，’saysanoldmantohiscaptive，’thatsogallantayouthwasallottedtomyshare:Iproposedtohaveplacedyouonthecouchofmynephew，whowasslainbyyourcountrymen；tohavetransferredallmytendernesstoyou；andtohavesolacedmyageinyourcompany:butmaimedandmutilatedasyounowappear，deathisbetterthanlife:prepareyourselfthereforetodielikeaman。’(18*)
Itisperhapswithaviewtotheseexhibitions，orratherinadmirationoffortitude，theprinciplefromwhichtheyproceed，thattheAmericansaresoattentive，intheirearliestyears，tohardentheirnerves。(19*)Thechildrenaretaughttoviewitheachotherinbearingthesharpesttorments；theyouthareadmittedintotheclassofmanhood，afterviolentproofsoftheirpatience；andleadersareputtothetest，byfamine，burning，andsuffocation。(20*)
Itmightbeapprehended，thatamongrudenations，wherethemeansofsubsistenceareprocuredwithsomuchdifficulty，themindcouldneverraiseitselfabovetheconsiderationofthissubject；andthatmanwould，inthiscondition，giveexamplesofthemeanestandmostmercenaryspirit。Thereverse，however，istrue。Directedinthisparticularbythedesiresofnature，men，intheirsimpleststate，attendtotheobjectsofappetitenofurtherthanappetiterequires；andtheirdesiresoffortuneextendnofurtherthanthemealwhichgratifiestheirhunger:
theyapprehendnosuperiorityofrankinthepossessionofwealth，suchasmightinspireanyhabitualprincipleofcovetousness，vanity，orambition:theycanapplytonotaskthatengagesnoimmediatepassion，andtakepleasureinnooccupationthataffordsnodangerstobebraved，andnohonourstobewon。
ItwasnotamongtheancientRomansalonethatcommercialarts，orasordidmind，wereheldincontempt。Alikespiritprevailsineveryrudeandindependentsociety。’Iamawarrior，andnotamerchant，’saidanAmericantothegovernorofCanada，whoproposedtogivehimgoodsinexchangeforsomeprisonershehadtaken；’yourcloathsandutensilsdonottemptme；butmyprisonersarenowinyourpower，andyoumayseizethem:ifyoudo，Imustgoforthandtakemoreprisoners，orperishintheattempt；andifthatchanceshouldbefalme，Ishalldielikeaman；butremember，thatournationwillchargeyouasthecauseofmydeath。’(21*)Withtheseapprehensions，theyhaveanelevation，andastatelinessofcarriage，whichtheprideofnobility，whereitismostreveredbypolishednations，seldombestows。
Theyareattentivetotheirpersons，andemploymuchtime，aswellasenduregreatpain，inthemethodstheytaketoadorntheirbodies，togivethepermanentstainswithwhichtheyarecoloured，orpreservethepaint，whichtheyareperpetuallyrepairing，inordertoappearwithadvantage。
Theiraversiontoeverysortofemploymentwhichtheyholdtobemean，makesthempassgreatpartoftheirtimeinidlenessorsleep；andamanwho，inpursuitofawildbeast，ortosurprisehisenemy，willtraverseahundredleaguesonsnow，willnot，toprocurehisfood，submittoanyspeciesofordinarylabour。
’Strange，’saysTacitus，’thatthesamepersonshouldbesomuchaversetorepose，andsomuchaddictedtosloth。’
Gamesofhazardarenottheinventionofpolishedages；menofcuriosityhavelookedfortheirorigin，invain，amongthemonumentsofanobscureantiquity；anditisprobablethattheybelongedtotimestooremoteandtoorudeevenfortheconjecturesofantiquarianstoreach。Theverysavagebringshisfurs，hisutensils，andhisbeads，tothehazard-table:hefindsherethepassionsandagitationswhichtheapplicationsofatediousindustrycouldnotexcite:andwhilethethrowisdepending，hetearshishair，andbeatshisbreast，witharagewhichthemoreaccomplishedgamesterhassometimeslearnedtorepress:heoftenquitsthepartynaked，andstrippedofallhispossessions；orwhereslaveryisinuse，stakeshisfreedomtohaveonechancemoretorecoverhisformerloss。(22*)
Withalltheseinfirmities，vices，orrespectablequalities，belongingtothehumanspeciesinitsrudeststate；theloveofsociety，friendship，andpublicaffection，penetration，eloquence，andcourage，appeartohavebeenitsoriginalproperties，notthesubsequenteffectsofdeviceorinvention。Ifmankindarequalifiedtoimprovetheirmanners，thesubjectwasfurnishedbynature；andtheeffectofcultivationisnottoinspirethesentimentsoftendernessandgenerosity，nortobestowtheprincipalconstituentsofarespectablecharacter，buttoobviatethecasualabusesofpassion；andtopreventamind，whichfeelsthebestdispositionsintheirgreatestforce，frombeingattimeslikewisethesportofbrutalappetiteandungovernableviolence。
WereLycurgusemployedanewtooperateonthematerialswehavedescribed，hewouldfindthem，inmanyimportantparticulars，preparedbynatureherselfforhisuse。Hisequalityinmattersofpropertybeingalreadyestablished，hewouldhavenofactiontoapprehendfromtheoppositeinterestsofthepoorandtherich；hissenate，hisassemblyofthepeople，isconstituted；hisdisciplineisinsomemeasureadopted；andtheplaceofhishelotsissuppliedbythetaskallottedtooneofthesexes。Withalltheseadvantages，hewouldstillhavehadaveryimportantlessonforcivilsocietytoteach，thatbywhichafewlearntocommand，andthemanyaretaughttoobey。hewouldhaveallhisprecautionstotakeagainstthefutureintrusionofmercenaryarts，theadmirationofluxury，andthepassionforinterest。hewouldstillperhapshaveamoredifficulttaskthananyoftheformer，inteachinghiscitizensthecommandofappetite，andanindifferencetopleasure，aswellasacontemptofpain；inteachingthemtomaintain，inthefield，theformalityofuniformprecautions，andasmuchtoavoidbeingthemselvessurprised，astheyendeavourtosurprisetheirenemy。
Forwantoftheseadvantages，rudenationsingeneral，thoughtheyarepatientofhardshipandfatigue，thoughtheyareaddictedtowar，andarequalifiedbytheirstratagemandvalourtothrowterrorintothearmiesofamoreregularenemy；yet，inthecourseofacontinuedstruggle，alwaysyieldtothesuperiorarts，andthedisciplineofmorecivilizednations。HencetheRomanswereabletoover-runtheprovincesofGaul，Germany，andBritain；andhencetheEuropeanshaveagrowingascendencyoverthenationsofAfricaandAmerica。
Onthecreditofasuperioritywhichcertainnationspossess，theythinkthattheyhaveaclaimtodominion；andevenCaesarappearstohaveforgottenwhatwerethepassions，aswellastherightsofmankind，whenhecomplained，thattheBritons，afterhavingsenthimasubmissivemessagetoGaul，perhapstopreventhisinvasion，stillpretendedtofightfortheirliberties，andtoopposehisdescentontheirisland。(23*)
Thereisnot，perhaps，inthewholedescriptionofmankind，acircumstancemoreremarkablethanthatmutualcontemptandaversionwhichnations，underadifferentstateofcommercialarts，bestowoneachother。Addictedtotheirownpursuits，andconsideringtheirownconditionasthestandardofhumanfelicity，allnationspretendtothepreference，andintheirpracticegivesufficientproofofsincerity。Eventhesavagestilllessthanthecitizen，canbemadetoquitthatmanneroflifeinwhichheistrained:helovesthatfreedomofmindwhichwillnotbeboundtoanytask，andwhichownsnosuperior:
howevertemptedtomixwithpolishednations，andtobetterhisfortune，thefirstmomentoflibertybringshimbacktothewoodsagain；hedroopsandhepinesinthestreetsofthepopulouscity；hewandersdissatisfiedovertheopenandthecultivatedfield；heseeksthefrontierandtheforest，where，withaconstitutionpreparedtoundergothehardshipsandthedifficultiesofthesituation，heenjoysadeliciousfreedomfromcare，andaseducingsociety，wherenorulesofbehaviourareprescribed，butthesimpledictatesoftheheart。
