Itisnobletopossesshappinessandindependence，eitherinretirement，orinpubliclife。Thecharacteristicofthehappy，istoacquitthemselveswellineverycondition；inthecourt，orinthevillage；inthesenate，orintheprivateretreat。Butiftheyaffectanyparticularstation，itissurelythatinwhichtheiractionsmayberenderedmostextensivelyuseful。Ourconsideringmereretirement，therefore，asasymptomofmoderation，andofvirtue，iseitheraremnantofthatsystem，underwhichmonksandanchorets，informerages，havebeencanonized；orproceedsfromahabitofthinking，whichappearsequallyfraughtwithmoralcorruption，fromourconsideringpubliclifeasasceneforthegratificationofmerevanity，avarice，andambition；neverasfurnishingthebestopportunityforajustandahappyengagementofthemindandtheheart。
Emulation，andthedesireofpower，arebutsorrymotivestopublicconduct；butiftheyhavebeen，inanycase，theprincipalinducementsfromwhichmenhavetakenpartintheserviceoftheircountry，anydiminutionoftheirprevalenceorforceisarealcorruptionofnationalmanners；andthepretendedmoderationassumedbythehigherordersofmen，hasafataleffectinthestate。Thedisinterestedloveofthepublic，isaprinciplewithoutwhichsomeconstitutionsofgovernmentcannotsubsist:
butwhenweconsiderhowseldomthishasappearedareigningpassion，wehavelittlereasontoimputetheprosperityofpreservationofnations，ineverycase，toitsinfluence。
Itissufficient，perhaps，underoneformofgovernment，thatmenshouldbefondoftheirindependence；thattheyshouldbereadytoopposeusurpation，andtorepelpersonalindignities:
underanother，itissufficient，thattheyshouldbetenaciousoftheirrank，andoftheirhonours；andinsteadofazealforthepublic，entertainavigilantjealousyoftherightswhichpertaintothemselves。Whennumbersofmenretainacertaindegreeofelevationandfortitude，theyarequalifiedtogiveamutualchecktotheirseveralerrors，andareabletoactinthatvarietyofsituationswhichthedifferentconstitutionsofgovernmenthavepreparedfortheirmembers:but，underthedisadvantagesofafeeblespirit，howeverdirected，andhoweverinformed，nonationalconstitutionissafe；norcananydegreeofenlargementtowhichastatehasarrived，secureitspoliticalwelfare。
Instateswhereproperty，distinction，andpleasure，arethrownoutasbaitstotheimagination，andincentivestopassion，thepublicseemstorelyforthepreservationofitspoliticallife，onthedegreeofemulationandjealousywithwhichpartiesmutuallyopposeandrestraineachother。Thedesiresofprefermentandprofitinthebreastofthecitizen，arethemotivesfromwhichheisexcitedtoenteronpublicaffairs，andaretheconsiderationswhichdirecthispoliticalconduct。Thesuppression，therefore，ofambition，ofparty-animosity，andofpublicenvy，isprobably，ineverysuchcase，notareformation，butasymptomofweakness，andapreludetomoresordidpursuits，andruinousamusements。
Ontheeveofsucharevolutioninmanners，thehigherranks，ineverymixedormonarchicalgovernment，haveneedtotakeinthecareofthemselves。Menofbusiness，andofindustry，inferiorstationsoflife，retaintheiroccupations，andaresecured，byakindofnecessity，inthepossessionofthosehabitsonwhichtheyrelyfortheirquiet，andforthemoderateenjoymentsoflife。Butthehigherordersofmen，iftheyrelinquishthestate，iftheyceasetopossessthatcourageandelevationofmind，andtoexercisethosetalentswhichareemployedinitsdefence，anditsgovernment，are，inreality，bytheseemingadvantagesoftheirstation，becometherefuseofthatsocietyofwhichtheyonceweretheornament；andfrombeingthemostrespectable，andthemosthappy，ofitsmembers，arebecomethemostwretchedandcorrupt。Intheirapproachtothiscondition，andintheabsenceofeverymanlyoccupation，theyfeeladissatisfactionandlanguorwhichtheycannotexplain:
Theypineinthemidstofapparentenjoyments；or，bythevarietyandcapriceoftheirdifferentpursuitsandamusements，exhibitastateofagitation，which，likethedisquietofsickness，isnotaproofofenjoymentorpleasure，butofsufferingandpain。Thecareofhisbuildings，hisequipage，orhistable，ischosenbyone；literaryamusement，orsomefrivolousstudy，byanother。Thesportsofthecountry，andthediversionsofthetown；thegaming-table，(5*)dogs，horses，andwine，areemployedtofilluptheblankofalistlessandunprofitablelife。Theyspeakofhumanpursuits，asifthewholedifficultyweretofindsomethingtodo。Theyfixonsomefrivolousoccupation，asiftherewasnothingthatdeservedtobedone:Theyconsiderwhattendstothegoodoftheirfellow-creatures，asadisadvantagetothemselves:
Theyflyfromeveryscene，inwhichanyeffortsofvigourarerequired，orinwhichtheymightbealluredtoperformanyservicetotheircountry。Wemisapplyourcompassioninpityingthepoor；itweremuchmorejustlyappliedtotherich，whobecomethefirstvictimsofthatwretchedinsignificance，intowhichthemembersofeverycorruptedstate，bythetendencyoftheirweaknesses，andtheirvices，areinhastetoplungethemselves。
Itisinthiscondition，thatthesensualinventallthoserefinementsonpleasure，anddevisethoseincentivestoasatiatedappetite，whichtendtofosterthecorruptionsofadissoluteage。Theeffectsofbrutalappetite，andthemeredebauch，aremoreflagrant，andmoreviolent，perhaps，inrudeages，thantheyareinthelaterperiodsofcommerceandluxury:
butthatperpetualhabitofsearchingforanimalpleasurewhereitisnottobefound，inthegratificationsofanappetitethatiscloyed，andamongtheruinsofananimalconstitution，isnotmorefataltothevirtuesofthesoul，thanitiseventotheenjoymentofsloth，orofpleasure；itisnotamorecertainavocationfrompublicaffairs，orasurerpreludetonationaldecay，thanitisadisappointmenttoourhopesofprivatefelicity。
Inthesereflections，ithasbeentheobject，nottoascertainaprecisemeasuretowhichcorruptionhasriseninanyofthenationsthathaveattainedtoeminence，orthathavegonetodecay；buttodescribethatremissnessofspirit，thatweaknessofsoul，thatstateofnationaldebility，whichislikelytoendinpoliticalslavery；anevilwhichremainstobeconsideredasthelastobjectofcaution，andbeyondwhichthereisnosubjectofdisquisitionintheperishingfortunesofnations。
SectionV。
OfCorruption，asittendstoPoliticalSlavery。
Liberty，inonesense，appearstobetheportionofpolishednationsalone。Thesavageispersonallyfree，becausehelivesunrestrained，andactswiththemembersofhistribeontermsofequality。Thebarbarianisfrequentlyindependentfromacontinuanceofthesamecircumstances，orbecausehehascourageandasword。Butgoodpolicyalonecanprovidefortheregularadministrationofjustice，orconstituteaforceinthestate，whichisreadyoneveryoccasiontodefendtherightsofitsmembers。
Ithasbeenfound，that，exceptinafewsingularcases，thecommercialandpoliticalartshaveadvancedtogether。TheseartshavebeeninmodernEuropesointerwoven，thatwecannotdeterminewhichwerepriorintheorderoftime，orderivedmostadvantagefromthemutualinfluenceswithwhichtheyactandre-actupononeanother。Ithasbeenobserved，thatinsomenationsthespiritofcommerce，intentonsecuringitsprofits，hasledthewaytopoliticalwisdom。Apeople，possessedofwealth，andbecomejealousoftheirproperties，haveformedtheprojectofemancipation，andhaveproceeded，underfavourofanimportancerecentlygained，stillfarthertoenlargetheirpretensions，andtodisputetheprerogativeswhichtheirsovereignhadbeeninusetoemploy。Butitisinvainthatweexpectinoneage，fromthepossessionofwealth，thefruitwhichitissaidtohaveborneinaformer。Greataccessionsoffortune，whenrecent，whenaccompaniedwithfrugality，andasenseofindependence，mayrendertheownerconfidentinhisstrength，andreadytospurnatoppression。Thepursewhichisopen，nottopersonalexpence，ortotheindulgenceofvanity，buttosupporttheinterestsofafaction，togratifythehigherpassionsofparty，renderthewealthycitizenformidabletothosewhopretendtodominion；butitdoesnotfollow，thatinatimeofcorruption，equal，orgreater，measuresofwealthshouldoperatetothesameeffect。
Onthecontrary，whenwealthisaccumulatedonlyinthehandsofthemiser，andrunstowastefromthoseoftheprodigal；whenheirsoffamilyfindthemselvesstraitenedandpoor，inthemidstofaffluence；whenthecravingsofluxurysilenceeventhevoiceofpartyandfaction；whenthehopesofmeritingtherewardsofcompliance，Orthefearoflosingwhatisheldatdiscretion，keepmeninastateofsuspenseandanxiety；whenfortune，inshort，insteadofbeingconsideredastheinstrumentofavigorousspirit，becomestheidolofacovetousoraprofuse，ofarapaciousoratimorousmind；thefoundationonwhichfreedomwasbuilt，mayservetosupportatyranny；andwhat，inoneage，raisedthepretensions，andfosteredtheconfidenceofthesubject，may，inanother，inclinehimtoservility，andfurnishthepricetobepaidforhisprostitutions。Eventhose，who，inavigorousage，gavetheexampleofwealth，inthehandsofthepeople，becominganoccasionoffreedom，may，intimesofdegeneracy，verifylikewisethemaximofTacitus，Thattheadmirationofrichesleadstodespoticalgovernment。(6*)
Menwhohavetastedoffreedom，andwhohavefelttheirpersonalrights，arenoteasilytaughttobearwithincroachmentsoneither，andcannot，withoutsomepreparation，cometosubmittooppression。Theymayreceivethisunhappypreparation，underdifferentformsofgovernment，fromdifferenthands，andarriveatthesameendbydifferentways。Theyfollowonedirectioninrepublics，anotherinmonarchies，andinmixedgovernments。Butwhere-everthestatehas，bymeansthatdonotpreservethevirtueofthesubject，effectuallyguardedhissafety；
remissness，andneglectofthepublic，arelikelytofollow；andpolishednationsofeverydescription，appeartoencounteradanger，onthisquarter，proportionedtothedegreeinwhichtheyhave，duringanycontinuance，enjoyedtheuninterruptedpossessionofpeaceandprosperity。
Libertyresults，wesay，fromthegovernmentoflaws；andweareapttoconsiderstatutes，notmerelyastheresolutionsandmaximsofapeopledeterminedtobefree，notasthewritingsbywhichtheirrightsarekeptonrecord；butasapowererectedtoguardthem，andasabarrierwhichthecapriceofmancannottransgress。
Whenabasha，inAsia，pretendstodecideeverycontroversybytherulesofnaturalequity，weallowthatheispossessedofdiscretionarypowers。WhenajudgeinEuropeislefttodecide，accordingtohisowninterpretationofwrittenlaws，isheinanysensemorerestrainedthantheformer？Havethemultipliedwordsofastatuteaninfluenceovertheconscience，andtheheart，morepowerfulthanthatofreasonandnature？Doestheparty，inanyjudicialproceeding，enjoyalessdegreeofsafety，whenhisrightsarediscussed，onthefoundationofarulethatisopentotheunderstandingsofmankind，thanwhentheyarereferredtoanintricatesystem，whichithasbecometheobjectofaseparateprofessiontostudyandtoexplain？
Ifformsofproceeding，writtenstatutes，orotherconstituentsoflaw，ceasetobeenforcedbytheveryspiritfromwhichtheyarose；theyserveonlytocover，nottorestrain，theiniquitiesofpower:theyarepossiblyrespectedevenbythecorruptmagistrate，whentheyfavourhispurpose；buttheyarecontemnedorevaded，whentheystandinhisway:Andtheinfluenceoflaws，wheretheyhaveanyrealeffectinthepreservationofliberty，isnotanymagicpowerdescendingfromshelvesthatareloadedwithbooks，butis，inreality，theinfluenceofmenresolvedtobefree；ofmen，who，havingadjustedinwritingthetermsOnwhichtheyaretolivewiththestate，andwiththeirfellow-subjects，aredetermined，bytheirvigilanceandspirit，tomakethesetermsbeobserved。
Wearetaught，undereveryformofgovernment，toapprehendusurpations，fromtheabuse，orfromtheextensionoftheexecutivepower。Inpuremonarchies，thispoweriscommonlyhereditary，andmadetodescendinadeterminateline。Inelectivemonarchies，itisheldforlife。Inrepublics，itisexercisedduringalimitedtime。Wheremen，orfamilies，arecalledbyelectiontothepossessionoftemporarydignities，itismoretheobjectofambitiontoperpetuate，thantoextendtheirpowers。Inhereditarymonarchies，thesovereigntyisalreadyperpetual；andtheaimofeveryambitiousprince，istoenlargehisprerogative。Republics，and，intimesofcommotion，communitiesofeveryform，areexposedtohazard，notfromthoseonlywhoareformallyraisedtoplacesoftrust，butfromeverypersonwhatever，whoisincitedbyambition，andwhoissupportedbyfaction。
Itisnoadvantagetoaprince，orothermagistrate，toenjoymorepowerthanisconsistentwiththegoodofmankind；norisitofanybenefittoamantobeunjust:butthesemaximsareafeeblesecurityagainstthepassionsandfolliesofmen。Thosewhoareintrustedwithanymeasuresofinfluence，aredisposed，fromamereaversiontoconstraint，toremoveopposition。Notonlythemonarchwhowearsahereditarycrown，butthemagistratewhoholdshisofficeforalimitedtime，growsfondofhisdignity。Theveryminister，whodependsforhisplaceonthemomentarywillofhisprince，andwhosepersonalinterestsare，ineveryrespect，thoseofasubject，stillhastheweaknesstotakeaninterestinthegrowthofprerogative，andtoreckonasgaintohimselftheincroachmentshehasmadeontherightsofapeople，withwhomhehimselfandhisfamilyaresoontobenumbered。
Evenwiththebestintentionstowardsmankind，weareinclinedtothink，thattheirwelfaredepends，notonthefelicityoftheirowninclinations，orthehappyemploymentoftheirowntalents，butontheirreadycompliancewithwhatwehavedevisedfortheirgood。Accordingly，thegreatestvirtueofwhichanysovereignhashithertoshownanexample，isnotadesireofcherishinginhispeoplethespiritoffreedomandindependence；butwhatisinitselfsufficientlyrare，andhighlymeritorious，asteadyregardtothedistributionofjusticeinmattersofproperty，adispositiontoprotectandtooblige，toredressthegrievances，andtopromotetheinterestofhissubjects。Itwasfromareferencetotheseobjects，thatTituscomputedthevalueofhistime，andjudgedofitsapplication。
Butthesword，whichinthisbeneficenthandwasdrawntoprotectthesubject，andtoprocureaspeedyandeffectualdistributionofjustice，waslikewisesufficientinthehandsofatyrant，toshedthebloodoftheinnocent，andtocanceltherightsofmen。
Thetemporaryproceedingsofhumanity，thoughtheysuspendedtheexerciseofoppression，didnotbreakthenationalchains:theprincewaseventhebetterenabledtoprocurethatspeciesofgoodwhichhestudied；becausetherewasnofreedomremaining，andbecausetherewasnowhereaforcetodisputehisdecrees，ortointerrupttheirexecution。
Wasitinvain，thatAntoninusbecameacquaintedwiththecharactersofThrasea，Helvidius，Cato，Dion，andBrutus？Wasitinvain，thathelearnedtounderstandtheformofafreecommunity，raisedonthebasisofequalityandjustice；orofamonarchy，underwhichthelibertiesofthesubjectwereheldthemostsacredobjectofadministration？(7*)Didhemistakethemeansofprocuringtomankindwhathepointsoutasablessing？
Ordidtheabsolutepowerwithwhichhewasfurnished，inamightyempire，onlydisablehimfromexecutingwhathismindhadperceivedasanationalgood？Insuchacase，itwerevaintoHatterthemonarchorhispeople。Thefirstcannotbestowliberty，withoutraisingaspirit，whichmay，onoccasion，standinoppositiontohisowndesigns；northelatterreceivethisblessing，whiletheyownthatitisintherightofamastertogiveortowith-holdit。Theclaimofjusticeisfirmandperemptory，Wereceivefavourswithasenseofobligationandkindness；butwewouldinforceourrights，andthespiritoffreedominthisexertioncannottakethetoneofsupplication，orofthankfulness，withoutbetrayingitself。’YouhaveintreatedOctavius，’saysBrutustoCicero，’thathewouldsparethosewhostandforemostamongthecitizensofRome。Whatifhewillnot？
Mustweperish？yes；ratherthanoweoursafetytohim。’
Libertyisarightwhicheveryindividualmustbereadytovindicateforhimself，andwhichhewhopretendstobestowasafavour，hasbythatveryactinrealitydenied。Evenpoliticalestablishments，thoughtheyappeartobeindependentofthewillandarbitrationofmen，cannotbereliedonforthepreservationoffreedom；theymaynourish，butshouldnotsupersedethatfirmandresolutespirit，withwhichtheliberalmindisalwayspreparedtoresistindignities，andtoreferitssafetytoitself。
Wereanation，therefore，giventobemouldedbyasovereign，astheclayisputintothehandsofthepotter，thisprojectofbestowinglibertyonapeoplewhoareactuallyservile，is，perhaps，ofallothers，themostdifficult，andrequiresmosttobeexecutedinsilence，andwiththedeepestreserve。Menarequalifiedtoreceivethisblessing，onlyinproportionastheyaremadetoapprehendtheirownrights；andaremadetorespectthejustpretensionsofmankind；inproportionastheyarewillingtosustain，intheirownpersons，theburdenofgovernment，andofnationaldefence；andarewillingtoprefertheengagementsofaliberalmind，totheenjoymentsofsloth，orthedelusivehopesofasafetypurchasedbysubmissionandfear。
Ispeakwithrespect，and，ifImaybeallowedtheexpression，evenwithindulgence，tothosewhoareintrustedwithhighprerogativesinthepoliticalsystemofnations。Itis，indeed，seldomtheirfaultthatstatesareinslaved。Whatshouldbeexpectedfromthem，butthatbeingactuatedbyhumandesires，theyshouldbeaversetodisappointment，oreventodelay；andintheardourwithwhichtheypursuetheirobject，thattheyshouldbreakthroughthebarriersthatwouldstoptheircareer？Ifmillionsrecedebeforesinglemen，andsenatesarepassive，asifcomposedofmemberswhohadnoopinionorsenseoftheirown；onwhosesidehavethedefencesoffreedomgivenway，ortowhomshallweimputetheirfall？tothesubject，whohasdesertedhisstation；ortothesovereign，whohasonlyremainedinhisown；
andwho，ifthecollateralorsubordinatemembersofgovernmentshallceasetoquestionhispower，mustcontinuetogovernwithoutanyrestraint？
Itiswellknown，thatconstitutionsframedforthepreservationofliberty，mustconsistofmanyparts；andthatsenates，popularassemblies，courtsofjustice，magistratesofdifferentorders，mustcombinetobalanceeachother，whiletheyexercise，sustain，orchecktheexecutivepower。Ifanypartisstruckout，thefabricmusttotter，orfall；ifanymemberisremiss，theothersmustincroach。Inassembliesconstitutedbymenofdifferenttalents，habits，andapprehensions，itweresomethingmorethanhumanthatcouldmakethemagreeineverypointofimportance；havingdifferentopinionsandviews，itwerewantofintegritytoabstainfromdisputes:ourverypraiseofunanimity，therefore，istobeconsideredasadangertoliberty。
Wewishforit，atthehazardoftakinginitsplace，theremissnessofmengrownindifferenttothepublic；thevenalityofthosewhohavesoldtherightsoftheircountry；ortheservilityofothers，whogiveimplicitobediencetoaleaderbywhomtheirmindsaresubdued。Theloveofthepublic，andrespecttoitslaws，arethepointsinwhichmankindareboundtoagree；
butif，inmattersofcontroversy，thesenseofanyindividualorpartyisinvariablypursued，thecauseoffreedomisalreadybetrayed。
Hewhoseofficeitistogovernasupineoranabjectpeople，cannot，foramoment，ceasetoextendhispowers。Everyexecutionoflaw，everymovementofthestate，everycivilandmilitaryoperation，inwhichhispowerisexerted，mustservetoconfirmhisauthority，andpresenthimtotheviewofthepublic，asthesoleobjectofconsideration，fear，andrespect。Thoseveryestablishmentswhichweredevised，inoneage，tolimit，ortodirecttheexerciseofanexecutivepower，willserve，inanother，tosettleitsfoundations，andtogiveitstability，theywillpointoutthechannelsinwhichitmayrun，withoutgivingoffence，orwithoutexcitingalarms，andtheverycouncilswhichwereinstitutedtocheckitsincroachments，will，inatimeofcorruption，furnishanaidtoitsusurpations。
Thepassionforindependence，andtheloveofdominion，frequentlyarisefromacommonsource:Thereis，inboth，anaversiontocontroul；andhe，who，inonesituation，cannotbruikasuperior，must，inanother，disliketobejoinedwithanequal。
Whattheprince，underapureorlimitedmonarchy，is，bytheconstitutionofhiscountry，theleaderofafactionwouldwillinglybecomeinrepublicangovernments。Ifheattainstothisenviedcondition，hisowninclination，orthetendencyofhumanaffairs，seemtoopenbeforehimthecareerofaroyalambition:
butthecircumstancesinwhichheisdestinedtoact，areverydifferentfromthoseofaking。Heencounterswithmenwhoareunusedtodisparity；heisobliged，forhisownsecurity，toholdthedaggercontinuallyunsheathed。Whenhehopestobesafe，hepossiblymeanstobejust；butishurried，fromthefirstmomentofhisusurpation，intoeveryexerciseofdespoticalpower。Theheirofacrownhasnosuchquarreltomaintainwithhissubjects:hissituationisflattering；andtheheartmustbeuncommonlybad，thatdoesnotglowwithaffectiontoapeople，whoare，atonce，hisadmirers，hissupport，andtheornamentsofhisreign。Inhim，perhaps，thereisnoexplicitdesignoftrespassingontherightsofhissubjects；buttheformsintendedtopreservetheirfreedom，arenot，onthisaccount，alwayssafeinhishands。
Slaveryhasbeenimposeduponmankindinthewantonnessofadepravedambition，andtyrannicalcrueltieshavebeencommittedinthegloomyhoursofjealousyandterror:yetthesedemonsarenotnecessarytothecreation，Ortothesupportofanarbitrarypower。AlthoughnopolicywasevermoresuccessfulthanthatoftheRomanrepublicinmaintaininganationalfortune；yetsubjects，aswellastheirprinces，frequentlyimaginethatfreedomisaclogontheproceedingsofgovernment:theyimagine，thatdespoticalpowerisbestfittedtoprocuredispatchandsecrecyintheexecutionofpubliccouncils；tomaintainwhattheyarepleasedtocallpoliticalorder(8*)andtogiveaspeedyredressofcomplaints。Theyevensometimesacknowledge，thatifasuccessionofgoodprincescouldbefound，despoticalgovernmentisbestcalculatedforthehappinessofmankind。Whiletheyreasonthus，theycannotblameasovereignwho，intheconfidencethatheistoemployhispowerforgoodpurposes，endeavourstoextenditslimits；and，inhisownapprehension，strivesonlytoshakeofftherestraintswhichstandinthewayofreason，andwhichpreventtheeffectofhisfriendlyintentions。
Thuspreparedforusurpation，lethim，attheheadofafreestate，employtheforcewithwhichheisarmed，tocrushtheseedsofapparentdisorderineverycornerofhisdominions；lethimeffectuallycurbthespiritofdissensionandvarianceamonghispeople；lethimremovetheinterruptionstogovernment，arisingfromtherefractoryhumoursandtheprivateinterestsofhissubjects；lethimcollecttheforceofthestateagainstitsenemies，byavailinghimselfofallitcanfurnishinthewayoftaxationandpersonalservice:itisextremelyprobable，that，evenunderthedirectionofwishesforthegoodofmankind，hemaybreakthrougheverybarrierofliberty，andestablishadespotism，whileheflattershimself，thatheonlyfollowsthedictatesofsenseandpropriety。
Whenwesupposegovernmenttohavebestowedadegreeoftranquillity，whichwesometimeshopetoreapfromit，asthebestofitsfruits，andpublicaffairstoproceed，intheseveraldepartmentsoflegislationandexecution，withtheleastpossibleinterruptiontocommerceandlucrativearts；suchastate，likethatofChina，bythrowingaffairsintoseparateoffices，whereconductconsistsindetail，andintheobservanceofforms，bysupersedingalltheexertionsofagreatoraliberalmind，ismoreakintodespotismthanweareapttoimagine。
Whetheroppression，injustice，andcruelty，aretheonlyevilswhichattendondespoticalgovernment，maybeconsideredapart。Inthemeantimeitissufficienttoobserve，thatlibertyisneveringreaterdangerthanitiswhenwemeasurenationalfelicitybytheblessingswhichaprincemaybestow，orbythemeretranquillitywhichmayattendonequitableadministration。
Thesovereignmaydazzlewithhisheroicqualities；hemayprotecthissubjectsintheenjoymentofeveryanimaladvantageorpleasure:butthebenefitsarisingfromlibertyareofadifferentsort；theyarenotthefruitsofavirtue，andofagoodness，whichoperateinthebreastofoneman，butthecommunicationofvirtueitselftomany；andsuchadistributionoffunctionsincivilsociety，asgivestonumberstheexercisesandoccupationswhichpertaintotheirnature。
Thebestconstitutionsofgovernmentareattendedwithinconvenience；andtheexerciseoflibertymay，onmanyoccasions，giverisetocomplaints。Whenweareintentonreformingabuses，theabusesoffreedommayleadustoincroachonthesubjectfromwhichtheyaresupposedtoarise。Despotismitselfhascertainadvantages，oratleast，intimeofcivilityandmoderation，mayproceedwithsolittleoffence，astogivenopublicalarm。Thesecircumstancesmayleadmankind，intheveryspiritofreformation，orbymereinattention，toapplyortoadmitofdangerousinnovationsinthestateoftheirpolicy。
Slavery，however，isnotalwaysintroducedbymeremistake；
itissometimesimposedinthespiritofviolenceandrapine。
Princesbecomecorruptaswellastheirpeople；andwhatevermayhavebeentheoriginofdespoticalgovernment，itspretensions，whenfullyexplained，giverisetoacontestbetweenthesovereignandhissubjects，whichforcealonecandecide。Thesepretensionshaveadangerousaspecttotheperson，theproperty，orthelifeofeverysubject；theyalarmeverypassioninthehumanbreast；theydisturbthesupine；theydeprivethevenalofhishire；theydeclarewaronthecorruptaswellasthevirtuous；theyaretamelyadmittedonlybythecoward；buteventohimmustbesupportedbyaforcethatcanworkonhisfears。
Thisforcetheconquerorbringsfromabroad；andthedomesticusurperendeavourstofindinhisfactionathome。
Whenapeopleisaccustomedtoarms，itisdifficultforaparttosubduethewhole；orbeforetheestablishmentofdisciplinedarmies，itisdifficultforanyusurpertogovernthemanybythehelpofafew。Thesedifficulties，however，thepolicyofcivilizedandcommercialnationshassometimesremoved；
andbyformingadistinctionbetweencivilandmilitaryprofessions，bycommittingthekeepingandtheenjoymentoflibertytodifferenthands，haspreparedthewayforthedangerousallianceoffactionwithmilitarypower，inoppositiontomerepoliticalforms，andtherightsofmankind。
Apeoplewhoaredisarmedincompliancewiththisfatalrefinement，haverestedtheirsafetyonthepleadingsofreasonandjusticeatthetribunalofambitionandofforce。Insuchanextremity，lawsarequoted，andsenatesareassembled，invain。
Theywhocomposealegislature，orwhooccupythecivildepartmentsofstate，maydeliberateonthemessagestheyreceivefromthecamporthecourt；butifthebearer，likethecenturionwhobroughtthepetitionofOctaviustotheRomansenate，shewthehiltofhissword，(9*)theyfindthatpetitionsarebecomecommands，andthattheythemselvesarebecomethepageants，nottherepositoriesofsovereignpower。
Thereflectionsofthissectionmaybeunequallyappliedtonationsofunequalextent。Smallcommunities，howevercorrupted，arenotpreparedfordespoticalgovernment:theirmembers，croudedtogether，andcontiguoustotheseatsofpower，neverforgettheirrelationtothepublic；theypry，withhabitsoffamiliarityandfreedom，intothepretensionsofthosewhowouldrule；andwheretheloveofequality，andthesenseofjustice，havefailed，theyactonmotivesoffaction，emulation，andenvy。
TheexiledTarquinhadhisadherentsatRome；butifbytheirmeanshehadrecoveredhisstation，itisprobable，thatintheexerciseofhisroyalty，hemusthaveenteredonanewsceneofcontentionwiththeverypartythatrestoredhimtopower。
Inproportionasterritoryisextended，itspartslosetheirrelativeimportancetothewhole。Itsinhabitantsceasetoperceivetheirconnectionwiththestate，andareseldomunitedintheexecutionofanynational，orevenofanyfactious，designs。Distancefromthefeatsofadministration，andindifferencetothepersonswhocontendforpreferment，teachthemajoritytoconsiderthemselvesasthesubjectsofasovereignty，notasthemembersofapoliticalbody。Itisevenremarkable，thatenlargementofterritory，byrenderingtheindividualoflessconsequencetothepublic，andlessabletointrudewithhiscounsel，actuallytendstoreducenationalaffairswithinanarrowercompass，aswellastodiminishthenumberswhoareconsultedinlegislation，orinothermattersofgovernment。
Thedisorderstowhichagreatempireisexposed，requirespeedyprevention，vigilance，andquickexecution。Distantprovincesmustbekeptinsubjectionbymilitaryforce；andthedictatorialpowers，which，infreestates，aresometimesraisedtoquellinsurrections，ortoopposeotheroccasionalevils，appear，underacertainextentofdominion，atalltimesequallynecessarytosuspendthedissolutionofabody，whosepartswereassembled，andmustbecemented，bymeasuresforcible，decisive，andsecret。Amongthecircumstances，therefore，whichintheeventofnationalprosperity，andintheresultofcommercialarts，leadtotheestablishmentofdespotism，thereisnone，perhaps，thatarrivesatthistermination，withsosureanaim，astheperpetualenlargementofterritory。Ineverystate，thefreedomofitsmembersdependsonthebalanceandadjustmentofitsinteriorparts；andtheexistenceofanysuchfreedomamongmankind，dependsonthebalanceofnations。Intheprogressofconquest，thosewhoaresubduedaresaidtohavelosttheirliberties；butfromthehistoryofmankind，toconquer，ortobeconquered，hasappeared，ineffect，thesame。
SectionVI。
OftheProgressandTerminationofDespotismMankind，whentheydegenerate，andtendtotheirruin，aswellaswhentheyimprove，andgainrealadvantages，frequentlyproceedbyslow，andalmostinsensible，steps。If，duringagesofactivityandvigour，theyfillupthemeasureofnationalgreatnesstoaheightwhichnohumanwisdomcouldatadistanceforesee；theyactuallyincur，inagesofrelaxationandweakness，manyevilswhichtheirfearsdidnotsuggest，andwhich，perhaps，theyhadthoughtfarremovedbythetideofsuccessandprosperity。
Wehavealreadyobserved，thatwheremenareremissorcorrupted，thevirtueoftheirleaders，orthegoodintentionoftheirmagistrates，willnotalwayssecuretheminthepossessionofpoliticalfreedom。Implicitsubmissiontoanyleader，ortheuncontrouledexerciseofanypower，evenwhenitisintendedtooperateforthegoodofmankind，mayfrequentlyendinthesubversionoflegalestablishments。Thisfatalrevolution，bywhatevermeansitisaccomplished，terminatesinmilitarygovernment；andthis，thoughthesimplestofallgovernments，isrenderedcompletebydegrees。Inthefirstperiodofitsexerciseovermenwhohaveactedasmembersofafreecommunity，itcanhaveonlylaidthefoundation，notcompletedthefabric，ofadespoticalpolicy。Theusurper，whohaspossessed，withanarmy，thecentreofagreatempire，seesaroundhim，perhaps，theshatteredremainsofaformerconstitution；hemayhearthemurmursofareluctantandunwillingsubmission；hemayevenseedangerintheaspectofmany，fromwhosehandshemayhavewrestedthesword，butwhosemindshehasnotsubdued，norreconciledtohispower。
Thesenseofpersonalrights，orthepretensiontoprivilegeandhonours，whichremainamongcertainordersofmen，aresomanybarsinthewayofarecentusurpation。Iftheyarenotsufferedtodecaywithage，andtowearawayintheprogressofagrowingcorruption，theymustbebrokenwithviolence，andtheentrancetoeverynewaccessionofpowermustbestainedwithblood。Theeffect，eveninthiscase，isfrequentlytardy。TheRomanspirit，weknow，wasnotentirelyextinguishedunderasuccessionofmasters，andunderarepeatedapplicationofbloodshedandpoison。Thenobleandrespectablefamilystillaspiredtoitsoriginalhonours:Thehistoryoftherepublic，thewritingsofformertimes，themonumentsofillustriousmen，andthelessonsofaphilosophyfraughtwithheroicconceptions，continuedtonourishthesoulinretirement，andformedthoseeminentcharacters，whoseelevation，andwhosefate，are，perhaps，themostaffectingsubjectsofhumanstory。Thoughunabletoopposethegeneralbenttoservility，theybecame，onaccountoftheirsupposedinclinations，objectsofdistrustandaversion；andweremadetopaywiththeirblood，thepriceofasentimentwhichtheyfosteredinsilence，andwhichglowedonlyintheheart。
Whiledespotismproceedsinitsprogress，bywhatprincipleisthesovereignconductedinthechoiceofmeasuresthattendtoestablishhisgovernment？Byamistakenapprehensionofhisowngood，sometimesevenofthatofhispeople，andbythedesirewhichhefeelsoneveryparticularoccasion，toremovetheobstructionswhichimpedetheexecutionofhiswill。Whenhehasfixedaresolution，whoeverreasonsordemonstratesagainstitisanenemy；whenhismindiselated，whoeverpretendstoeminence，andisdisposedtoactforhimself，isarival。Hewouldleavenodignityinthestate，butwhatisdependentonhimself；noactivepower，butwhatcarriestheexpressionofhismomentarypleasure。
Guidedbyaperceptionasunerringasthatofinstinct，heneverfailstoselecttheproperobjectsofhisantipathyorofhisfavour。Theaspectofindependencerepelshim；thatofservilityattracts。Thetendencyofhisadministrationistoquieteveryrestlessspirit，andtoassumeeveryfunctionofgovernmenttohimself。(10*)Whenthepowerisadequatetotheend，itoperatesasmuchinthehandsofthosewhodonotperceivethetermination，asitdoesinthehandsofothersbywhomitisbestunderstood:themandatesofeither，whenjust，shouldnotbedisputed；whenerroneousorwrong，theyaresupportedbyforce。
Youmustdie，wastheanswerofOctaviustoeverysuit，fromapeoplethatimploredhismercy。Itwasthesentencewhichsomeofhissuccessorspronouncedagainsteverycitizenthatwaseminentforhisbirthorhisvirtues。Butaretheevilsofdespotismconfinedtothecruelandsanguinarymethods，bywhicharecentdominionoverarefractoryandaturbulentpeopleisestablishedormaintained？Andisdeaththegreatestcalamitywhichcanafflictmankindunderanestablishmentbywhichtheyaredivestedofalltheirrights？Theyare，indeed，frequentlysufferedtolive；butdistrust，andjealousy，thesenseofpersonalmeanness，andtheanxietieswhicharisefromthecareofawretchedinterest，aremadetopossessthesoul；everycitizenisreducedtoaslave；andeverycharmbywhichthecommunityengageditsmembers，hasceasedtoexist。Obedienceistheonlydutythatremains，andthisisexactedbyforce。Ifundersuchanestablishment，itbenecessarytowitnessscenesofdebasementandhorror，atthehazardofcatchingtheinfection，deathbecomesarelief。andthelibationwhichThraseawasmadetopourfromhisarteries，istobeconsideredasapropersacrificeofgratitudetoJovetheDeliverer。(11*)
Oppressionandcrueltyarenotalwaysnecessarytodespoticalgovernment；andevenwhenpresent，arebutapartofitsevils。
Itisfoundedoncorruption，andonthesuppressionofallthecivilandthepoliticalvirtues；itrequiresitssubjectstoactfrommotivesoffear；itwouldasswagethepassionsofafewmenattheexpenceofmankind；andwoulderectthepeaceofsocietyitselfontheruinsofthatfreedomandconfidencefromwhichalonetheenjoyment，theforce，andtheelevationofthehumanmind，arefoundtoarise。
Duringtheexistenceofanyfreeconstitution，andwhilsteveryindividualpossessedhisrankandhisprivilege，orhadhisapprehensionofpersonalrights，themembersofeverycommunityweretooneanotherobjectsofconsiderationandofrespect；
everypointtobecarriedincivilsociety，requiredtheexerciseoftalents，ofwisdom，persuasion，andvigour，aswellasofpower。Butitisthehighestrefinementofadespoticalgovernment，torulebysimplecommands，andtoexcludeeveryartbutthatofcompulsion。Undertheinfluenceofthispolicy，therefore，theoccasionswhichemployedandcultivatedtheunderstandingsofmen，whichawakenedtheirsentiments，andkindledtheirimaginations，aregraduallyremoved；andtheprogressbywhichmankindattainedtothehonoursoftheirnature，inbeingengagedtoactinsocietyuponaliberalfooting，wasnotmoreuniform，orlessinterrupted，thanthatbywhichtheydegenerateinthisunhappycondition。
Whenwehearofthesilencewhichreignsintheseraglio，wearemadetobelieve，thatspeechitselfisbecomeunnecessary；
andthatthesignsofthemutearesufficienttocarrythemostimportantmandatesofgovernment。Noarts，indeed，arerequiredtomaintainanascendantwhereterroraloneisopposedtoforce，wherethepowersofthesovereignaredelegatedentiretoeverysubordinateofficer:norcananystationbestowaliberalityofmindinasceneofsilenceanddejection，whereeverybreastispossessedwithjealousyandcaution，andwherenoobject，butanimalpleasure，remainstobalancethesufferingsofthesovereignhimself，orthoseofhissubjects。
Inotherstates，thetalentsofmenaresometimesimprovedbytheexerciseswhichbelongtoaneminentstation:butherethemasterhimselfisprobablytherudestandleastcultivatedanimaloftheherd；heisinferiortotheslavewhomheraisesfromaservileofficetothefirstplacesoftrustorofdignityinhiscourt。Theprimitivesimplicitywhichformedtiesoffamiliarityandaffectionbetwixtthesovereignandthekeeperofhisherds，(12*)appears，intheabsenceofallaffections，toberestored，ortobecounterfeitedamidsttheignoranceandbrutalitywhichequallycharacteriseallordersofmen，orratherwhichleveltheranks，anddestroythedistinctionofpersonsinadespoticalcourt。
Capriceandpassionaretherulesofgovernmentwiththeprince。Everydelegateofpowerislefttoactbythesamedirection；tostrikewhenheisprovoked；tofavourwhenheispleased。Inwhatrelatestorevenue，jurisdiction，orpolice，everygovernorofaprovinceactslikealeaderinanenemy’scountry；comesarmedwiththeterrorsoffireandsword；andinsteadofatax，leviesacontributionbyforce:heruinsorsparesaseithermayservehispurpose。Whentheclamoursoftheoppressed，orthereputationofatreasureamassedattheexpenceofaprovince，havereachedtheearsofthesovereign，theextortionerisindeedmadetopurchaseimpunitybyimpartingashare，orbyforfeitingthewholeofhisspoil；butnoreparationismadetotheinjured；nay，thecrimesoftheministerarefirstemployedtoplunderthepeople，andafterwardspunishedtofillthecoffersofthesovereign。
Inthistotaldiscontinuanceofeveryartthatrelatestojustgovernmentandnationalpolicy，itisremarkable，thateventhetradeofthesoldierisitselfgreatlyneglected。Distrustandjealousyonthepartoftheprince，comeinaidofhisignoranceandincapacity；andthesecausesoperatingtogether，servetodestroytheveryfoundationonwhichhispowerisestablished。Anyundisciplinedroutofarmedmenpassesforanarmy，whilstaweak，dispersed，andunarmedpeople，aresacrificedtomilitarydisorder，orexposedtodepredationonthefrontierfromanenemy，whomthedesireofspoil，orthehopesofconquest，mayhavedrawntotheirneighbourhood。
TheRomansextendedtheirempiretilltheyleftnopolishednationtobesubdued，andfoundafrontierwhichwaseverywheresurroundedbyfierceandbarbaroustribes；theyevenpiercedthroughuncultivateddeserts，inordertoremovetoagreaterdistancethemolestationofsuchtroublesomeneighbours，andinordertopossesstheavenuesthroughwhichtheyfearedtheirattacks。Butthispolicyputthefinishinghandtotheinternalcorruptionofthestate。Afewyearsoftranquillityweresufficienttomakeeventhegovernmentforgetitsdanger；andinthecultivatedprovince，preparedfortheenemy，atemptingprizeandaneasyvictory。
Whenbytheconquestandannexationofeveryrichandcultivatedprovince，themeasureofempireisfull，twopartiesaresufficienttocomprehendmankind；thatofthepacificandthewealthy，whodwellwithinthepaleofempire；andthatofthepoor，therapacious，andthefierce，whoareinuredtodepredationandwar。Thelastbeartothefirstnearlythesamerelationwhichthewolfandthelionbeartothefold；andtheyarenaturallyengagedinastateofhostility。
Weredespoticempire，mean-time，tocontinueforeverunmolestedfromabroad，whileitretainsthatcorruptiononwhichitwasfounded，itappearstohaveinitselfnoprincipleofnewlife，andpresentsnohopeofrestorationtofreedomandpoliticalvigour。Thatwhichthedespoticalmasterhassown，cannotquickenunlessitdie；itmustlanguishandexpirebytheeffectofitsownabuse，beforethehumanspiritcanspringupanew，orbearthosefruitswhichconstitutethehonourandthefelicityofhumannature。Intimeofthegreatestdebasement，indeed，commotionsarefelt；butveryunliketheagitationsofafreepeople:theyareeithertheagoniesofnature，underthesufferingstowhichmenareexposed；ormeretumults，confinedtoafewwhostandinarmsabouttheprince，andwho，bytheirconspiracies，assassinations，andmurders，serveonlytoplungethepacificinhabitantstilldeeperinthehorrorsoffearordespair。Scatteredintheprovinces，unarmed，unacquaintedwiththesentimentsofunionandconfederacy，restrictedbyhabittoawretchedoeconomy，anddraggingaprecariouslifeonthosepossessionswhichtheextortionsofgovernmenthaveleft；thepeoplecannowhere，underthesecircumstances，assumethespiritofacommunity，norformanyliberalcombinationfortheirowndefence。Theinjuredmaycomplain；andwhilehecannotobtainthemercyofgovernment，hemayimplorethecommiserationofhisfellow-subject。Butthatfellow-subjectiscomforted，thatthehandofoppressionhasnotseizedonhimself:hestudieshisinterest，orsnatcheshispleasure，underthatdegreeofsafetywhichobscurityandconcealmentbestow。
Thecommercialarts，whichseemtorequirenofoundationinthemindsofmen，buttheregardtointerest；noencouragement，butthehopesofgain，andthesecurepossessionofproperty，mustperishundertheprecarioustenureofslavery，andundertheapprehensionofdangerarisingfromthereputationofwealth。
Nationalpoverty，however，andthesuppressionofcommerce，arethemeansbywhichdespotismcomestoaccomplishitsowndestruction。Wheretherearenolongeranyprofitstocorrupt，orfearstodeter，thecharmofdominionisbroken，andthenakedslave，asawakefromadream，isastonishedtofindheisfree。
Whenthefenceisdestroyed，thewildsareopen，andtheherdbreaksloose。Thepastureofthecultivatedfieldisnolongerpreferredtothatofthedesert。Thesuffererwillinglyflieswheretheextortionsofgovernmentcannotovertakehim；whereeventhetimidandtheservilemayrecollecttheyaremen；wherethetyrantmaythreaten，butwhereheisknowntobenomorethanafellow-creature；wherehecantakenothingbutlife，andeventhisatthehazardofhisown。
Agreeablytothisdescription，thevexationsoftyrannyhaveovercome，inmanypartsoftheEast，thedesireofsettlement。
Theinhabitantsofavillagequittheirhabitations，andinfestthepublicways；thoseofthevalleysflytothemountains，and，equiptforflight，orpossessedofastronghold，subsistbydepredation，andbythewartheymakeontheirformermasters。
Thesedisordersconspirewiththeimpositionsofgovernmenttorendertheremainingsettlementsstilllesssecure:butwhiledevastationandruinappearoneveryside，mankindareforcedanewuponthoseconfederacies，acquireagainthatpersonalconfidenceandvigour，thatsocialattachment，thatuseofarms，which，informertimes，renderedasmalltribetheseedofagreatnation；andwhichmayagainenabletheemancipatedslavetobeginthecareerofcivilandcommercialarts。Whenhumannatureappearsintheutmoststateofcorruption，ithasactuallybeguntoreform。
Inthismanner，thescenesofhumanlifehavebeenfrequentlyshifted。Securityandpresumptionforfeittheadvantagesofprosperity；resolutionandconductretrievetheillsofadversity；andmankind，whiletheyhavenothingonwhichtorelybuttheirvirtue，arepreparedtogaineveryadvantage；andwhentheyconfidemostintheirfortune，aremostexposedtofeelitsreverse。Weareapttodrawtheseobservationsintorule；andwhenwearenolongerwillingtoactforourcountry，wepleadinexcuseofourownweaknessorfolly，asupposedfatalityinhumanaffairs。
Theinstitutionsofmenare，indeed，likelytohavetheirendaswellastheirbeginning:buttheirdurationisnotfixedtoanylimitedperiod；andnonationeversufferedinternaldecaybutfromtheviceofitsmembers。Wearesometimeswillingtoacknowledgethisviceinourcountrymen；butwhowaseverwillingtoacknowledgeitinhimself？Itmaybesuspected，however，thatwedomorethanacknowledgeit，whenweceasetoopposeitseffects，andwhenwepleadafatality，which，atleast，inthebreastofeveryindividual，isdependentonhimself。Menofrealfortitude，integrity，andability，arewellplacedineveryscene；theyreap，ineverycondition，theprincipalenjoymentsoftheirnature；theyarethehappyinstrumentsofprovidenceemployedforthegoodofmankind；or，ifwemustchangethislanguage，theyshow，thatwhiletheyaredestinedtolive，thestatestheycomposearelikewisedoomedbythefatestosurvive，andtoprosper。
NOTES:
1。ThebarbarousnationsofSiberia，ingeneral，areservileandtimid。
2。Chardin’stravelsthroughMingreliaintoPersia。
3。GemelliCarceri。
4。Jovenal’s10thsatire。
5。Thesedifferentoccupationsdifferfromeachother，inrespecttotheirdignity，andtheirinnocence；butnoneofthemaretheschoolsfromwhichmenarebroughttosustainthetotteringfortuneofnations；theyareequallyavocationsfromwhatoughttobetheprincipalpursuitofman，thegoodofmankind。
6。Estapudillosetopibushonos；eoqueunusimperitat，&c。
TacitusDemor。Ger。c。44。
7。M。Antoninius，lib。1。
8。Ournotionoforderincivilsocietyisfrequentlyfalse:itistakenfromtheanalogyofsubjectsinanimateanddead；weconsidercommotionandactionascontrarytoitsnature；wethinkitconsistentonlywithobedience，secrecyandthesilentpassingofaffairsthroughthehandsofafew。Thegoodorderofstonesinawall，istheirbeingproperlyfixedintheplacesforwhichtheyarehewn；weretheytostirthebuildingmustfall:buttheorderofmeninsociety，istheirbeingplacedwheretheyareproperlyqualifiedtoact。Thefirstisafabricmadeofdeadandinanimateparts，thesecondismadeoflivingandactivemembers。
Whenweseekinsocietyfortheorderofmereinactionandtranquility，weforgetthenatureofoursubject，andfindtheorderofslaves，notthatoffreemen。
9。Sueton。
10。Itisridiculoustohearmenofarestlessambition，whowouldbetheonlyactorsineveryscene，sometimescomplainofarefractoryspiritinmankind；asifthesamedispositionfromwhichtheydesiretousurpeveryoffice，didnotinclineeveryotherpersontoreasonandtoactatleastforhimself。
11。Porrectisqueutriuquebrachiivenis，postquamcruoremeffudit，humumsuperspargens，propriusvocatoQuaestore，Libemus，inquit，JoviLiberator。Spectajuvenis；etomenquidemDiiprohibeant；ceterumineatemporanatuses，quibus，firmareanimumdeceatconstantibusexemplis。Tacit。Ann。lib。16。
12。SeeOdyssey。
End
