Iftherefore，inthetradingofaneconomiccommunewithitsmembers，metallicmoneydoesnotfunctionasmoneybutasadisguisedlabourcertificate，itperformsitsmoneyfunctionevenlessinexchangebetweenthedifferenteconomiccommunes。Inthisexchange，ontheassumptionsmadebyHerrDühring，metallicmoneyistotallysuperfluous。Infact，merebook-keepingwouldsuffice，whichwouldeffecttheexchangeofproductsofequallabourforproductsofequallabourfarmoresimplyifitusedthenaturalmeasureoflabour-time，withthelabour-hourasunit——thanifitfirstconvertedthelabour-hoursintomoney。Theexchangeisinrealitysimpleexchangeinkind;allbalancesareeasilyandsimplysettledbydraftsonothercommunes。Butshouldacommunereallyhaveadeficitinitsdealingswithothercommunes，all“thegoldexistingintheuniverse“{D。Ph。96}，“moneybynature“{D。C。39}thoughitbe，couldnotsavethiscommunefromthefateofhavingtomakegoodthisdeficitbyincreasingthequantityofitsownlabour，ifitdoesnotwanttofallintoapositionofdependenceonothercommunesonaccountofitsdebt。Butletthereaderalwaysbearinmindthatwearenotourselvesconstructinganyedificeofthefuture;
wearemerelyacceptingHerrDühring’sassumptionsanddrawingtheinevitableconclusionsfromthem。
Thusneitherinexchangebetweentheeconomiccommuneanditsmembersnorinexchangebetweenthedifferentcommunescangold，whichis“moneybynature“，gettorealisethisitsnature。Nevertheless，HerrDühringassignstoitthefunctionofmoneyeveninthe“socialitarian“
system。Hence，wemustseeifthereisanyotherfieldinwhichitsmoneyfunctioncanbeexercised。Andthisfieldexists。HerrDühringgiveseveryonearightto“quantitativelyequalconsumption“{268}，buthecannotcompelanyonetoexerciseit。Onthecontrary，heisproudthatintheworldhehascreatedeveryonecandowhathelikeswithhismoney。Hethereforecannotpreventsomefromsettingasideasmallmoneyhoard，whileothersareunabletomakeendsmeetonthewagepaidtothem。Heevenmakesthisinevitablebyexplicitlyrecognisingintherightofinheritancethatfamilypropertyshouldbeownedincommon;whencecomesalsotheobligationoftheparentstomaintaintheirchildren。Butthismakesawidebreachinquantitativelyequalconsumption。Thebachelorliveslikealord，happyandcontentwithhiseightortwelvemarksaday，whilethewidowerwitheightminorchildrenfindsitverydifficulttomanageonthissum。Ontheotherhand，byacceptingmoneyinpaymentwithoutanyquestion，thecommuneleavesopenthedoortothepossibilitythatthismoneymayhavebeenobtainedotherwisethanbytheindividual’sownlabour。Nonolet。[122]Thecommunedoesnotknowwhereitcomesfrom。Butinthiswayallconditionsarecreatedpermittingmetallicmoney，whichhithertoplayedtheroleofamerelabourcertificate，toexerciseitsrealmoneyfunction。BoththeOpportunityandthemotivearepresent，ontheonehandtoformahoard，andontheothertorunintodebt。Theneedyindividualborrowsfromtheindividualwhobuildsupahoard。Theborrowedmoney，acceptedbythecommuneinpaymentformeansofsubsistence，oncemorebecomeswhatitisinpresent-daysociety，thesocialincarnationofhumanlabour，therealmeasureoflabour，thegeneralmediumofcirculation。
Allthe“lawsandadministrativeregulations“{323}intheworldarejustaspowerlessagainstitastheyareagainstthemultiplicationtableorthechemicalcompositionofwater。Andasthebuilderofthehoardisinapositiontoextortinterestfrompeopleinneed，usuryisrestoredalongwithmetallicmoneyfunctioningasmoney。
UptothispointwehaveonlyconsideredtheeffectsofaretentionofmetallicmoneywithinthefieldofoperationoftheDühringeconomiccommune。Butoutsidethisfieldtherestoftheworld，theprofligateworld，meanwhilecarriesoncontentedlyintheoldaccustomedway。Ontheworldmarketgoldandsilverremainworldmoney，ageneralmeansofpurchaseandpaymenttheabsolutesocialembodimentofwealth。Andthispropertyofthepreciousmetalgivestheindividualmembersoftheeconomiccommunesanewmotivetoaccumulateahoard，getrich，exactusury;themotivetomanoeuvrefreelyandindependentlywithregardtothecommuneandbeyonditsborders，andtorealiseontheworldmarkettheprivatewealthwhichtheyhaveaccumulated。Theusurersaretransformedintodealersinthemediumofcirculation，bankers，controllersofthemediumofcirculationandofworldmoney，andthusintocontrollersofproduction，andthusintocontrollersofthemeansofproduction，eventhoughthesemaystillformanyyearsberegisterednominallyasthepropertyoftheeconomicandtradingcommunes。Andsothathoardersandusurers，transformedintobankers，becomethemastersalsooftheeconomicandtradingcommunesthemselves。
HerrDühring’s“socialitariansystem“isindeedquitefundamentallydifferentfromthe“hazynotions“{D。K。G。498}oftheothersocialists。
Ithasnootherpurposebuttherecreationofhighfinance，underwhosecontrolandforwhosepecuniaryadvantageitwilllabourvaliantly——ifitshouldeverhappentobeestablishedandtoholdtogether。Itsonehopeofsalvationwouldlieintheamassersofhoardspreferring，bymeansoftheirworldmoney，torunawayfromthecommunewithallpossiblespeed。
IgnoranceofearliersocialistthoughtissowidespreadinGermanythataninnocentyouthmightatthispointraisethequestionwhether，forexample，Owen’slabour-notesmightnotleadtoasimilarabuse。Althoughweareherenotconcernedwithdevelopingthesignificanceoftheselabour-notes，spaceshouldbegiventothefollowingforthepurposeofcontrastingDühring’s“comprehensiveschematism“{D。C。341}withOwen’s“crudefeebleandmeagreideas“{D。K。G。295，296}:Inthefirstplace，suchamisuseofOwen’slabour-noteswouldrequiretheirconversionintorealmoney，whileHerrDühringpresupposesrealmoney，thoughattemptingtoprohibititfromfunctioningotherwisethanasmerelabourcertificate。WhileinOwen’sschemetherewouldhavetobearealabuse，inDühring’sschemetheimmanentnatureofmoney，whichisindependentofhumanvolition，wouldassertitself;thespecific，correctuseofmoneywouldassertitselfinspiteofthemisusewhichHerrDühringtriestoimposeonitowingtohisownignoranceofthenatureofmoney。Secondly，withOwenthelabour-notesareonlyatransitionalformtocompletecommunityandfreeutilisationoftheresourcesofsociety;andincidentallyatmostalsoameansdesignedtomakecommunismplausibletotheBritishpublic。IfthereforeanyformofmisuseshouldcompelOwen’ssocietytodoawaywiththelabour-notes，thesocietywouldtakeastepforwardtowardsitsgoal，enteringuponamoreperfectstageofitsdevelopment。ButiftheDühringianeconomiccommuneabolishesmoney，itatoneblowdestroysits“world-historicimport“，itputsanendtoitspeculiarbeauty，ceasestobetheDühringeconomiccommuneandsinkstothelevelofthebefoggednotionstoliftitfromwhichHerrDühringhasdevotedsomuchofthehardlabourofhisrationalfantasy。*14
What，then，isthesourceofallthestrangeerrorsandentanglementsamidwhichtheDühringeconomiccommunemeanders？Simplythefogwhich，inHerrDühring’smind，envelopstheconceptsofvalueandmoney，andfinallydriveshimtoattempttodiscoverthevalueoflabour。ButasHerrDühringhasnotbyanymeansthemonopolyofsuchfogginessforGermany，butonthecontrarymeetswithmanycompetitors，wewill“overt<’meourreluctanceforamomentandsolvetheknot“{497}whichhehascontrivedtomakehere。
Theonlyvalueknownineconomicsisthevalueofcommodities。
Whatarecommodities？Productsmadeinasocietyofmoreorlessseparateprivateproducers，andthereforeinthefirstplaceprivateproducts。Theseprivateproducts，however，becomecommoditiesonlywhentheyaremade，notforconsumptionbytheirproducers，butforconsumptionbyothers，thatis，forsocialconsumption;theyenterintosocialconsumptionthroughexchange。Theprivateproducersarethereforesociallyinterconnected，constituteasociety。Theirproducts，althoughtheprivateproductsofeachindividual，arethereforesimultaneouslybutunintentionallyandasitwereinvoluntarily，alsosocialproducts。Inwhat，then，consiststhesocialcharacteroftheseprivateproducts？Evidentlyintwopeculiarities:
first，thattheyallsatisfysomehumanwant，haveause-valuenotonlyfortheproducersbutalsoforothers，andsecondly，thatalthoughtheyareproductsofthemostvariedindividuallabour，theyareatthesametimeproductsofhumanlabourassuch，ofgeneralhumanlabour。Insofarastheyhaveause-valuealsoforotherpersons，theycan，generallyspeakingenterintoexchange;insofarasgeneralhumanlabour，thesimpleexpenditureofhumanlabour-powerisincorporatedinallofthem，theycanbecomparedwitheachotherinexchange，beassumedtobeequalorunequal，accordingtothequantityofthislabourembodiedineach。Intwoequalproductsmadeindividually，socialconditionsbeingequal，anunequalquantityofindividuallabourmaybecontained，butalwaysonlyanequalquantityofgeneralhumanlabour。Anunskilledsmithmaymakefivehorseshoesinthetimeaskilfulsmithmakesten。Butsocietydoesnotformvaluefromtheaccidentallackofskillofanindividual，itrecognisesasgeneralhumanlabouronlylabourofanormalaveragedegreeofskillattheparticulartime。Inexchangetherefore，oneofthefivehorseshoesmadebythefirstsmithhasnomorevaluethanoneofthetenmadebytheotherinanequaltime。Individuallabourcontainsgeneralhumanlabouronlyinsofarasitissociallynecessary。
ThereforewhenIsaythatacommodityhasaparticularvalue，Isay(1)thatitisasociallyusefulproduct;(2)thatithasbeenproducedbyaprivateindividualforprivateaccount，(3)thatalthoughaproductofindividuallabour，itisneverthelessatthesametimeandasitwereunconsciouslyandinvoluntarily，alsoaproductofsociallabourand，beitnoted，ofadefinitequantityofthislabour，ascertainedinasocialway，throughexchange;(4)Iexpressthisquantitynotinlabouritself，insoandsomanylabour-hours，butinanothercommodity。IfthereforeIsaythatthisclockisworthasmuchasthatpieceofclothandeachofthemisworthfiftymarks，Isaythatanequalquantityofsociallabouriscontainedintheclock，theclothandthemoney。Ithereforeassertthatthesociallabour-timerepresentedinthemhasbeensociallymeasuredandfoundtobeequal。Butnotdirectly，absolutely，aslabour-timeisusuallymeasured，inlabour-hoursordays，etc。，butinaroundaboutway，throughthemediumofexchange，relatively。ThatiswhyIcannotexpressthisdefinitequantityoflabour-timeinlabour-hours——howmanyofthemremainsunknowntome——butalsoonlyinaroundaboutway，relatively，inanothercommodity，whichrepresentsanequalquantityofsociallabourtime。
Theclockisworthasmuchasthepieceofcloth。
Buttheproductionandexchangeofcommodities，whilecompellingthesocietybasedonthemtotakethisroundaboutway，likewisecompelittomakethedetourasshortaspossible。Theysingleoutfromthecommonaltyofcommoditiesonesovereigncommodityinwhichthevalueofallothercommoditiescanbeexpressedonceandforall;acommoditywhichservesasthedirectincarnationofsociallabour，andisthereforedirectlyandunconditionallyexchangeableforallcommodities——money。Moneyisalreadycontainedinembryointheconceptofvalue;itisvalue，onlyindevelopedform。Butsincethevalueofcommodities，asopposedtothecommoditiesthemselves，assumesindependentexistenceinmoney，anewfactorappearsinthesocietywhichproducesandexchangescommodities，afactorwithnewsocialfunctionsandeffects。Weneedonlystatethispointatthemoment，withoutgoingmorecloselyintoit。
Thepoliticaleconomyofcommodityproductionisbynomeanstheonlysciencewhichhastodealwithfactorsknownonlyrelatively。Thesameistrueofphysics，wherewedonotknowhowmanyseparategasmoleculesarecontainedinagivenvolumeofgas，pressureandtemperaturebeingalsogiven。Butweknowthat，sofarasBoyle’slawiscorrect，suchagivenvolumeofanygascontainsasmanymoleculesasanequalvolumeofanyothergasatthesamepressureandtemperature。Wecanthereforecomparethemolecularcontentofthemostdiversevolumesofthemostdiversegasesunderthemostdiverseconditionsofpressureandtemperature;andifwetakeastheunitonelitreofgasat0°Cand760mmpressure，wecanmeasuretheabovemolecularcontentbythisunit——Inchemistrytheabsoluteatomicweightsofthevariouselementsarealsonotknowntous。Butweknowthemrelatively，inasmuchasweknowtheirreciprocalrelations。Hence，justascommodityproductionanditseconomicsobtainarelativeexpressionfortheunknownquantitiesoflabourcontainedinthevariouscommodities，bycomparingthesecommoditiesonthebasisoftheirrelativelabourcontent，sochemistryobtainsarelativeexpressionforthemagnitudeoftheatomicweightsunknowntoitbycomparingthevariouselementsonthebasisoftheiratomicweights，expressingtheatomicweightofoneelementinmultiplesorfractionsoftheother(sulphur，oxygen，hydrogen)。Andjustascommodityproductionelevatesgoldtotheleveloftheabsolutecommodity，thegeneralequivalentofallothercommodities，themeasureofallvalues，sochemistrypromoteshydrogentotherankofthechemicalmoneycommodity，byfixingitsatomicweightat1andreducingtheatomicweightsofallotherelementstohydrogen，expressingtheminmultiplesofitsatomicweight。
Commodityproduction，however，isbynomeanstheonlyformofsocialproduction。IntheancientIndiancommunitiesandinthefamilycommunitiesofthesouthernSlavs，productsarenottransformedintocommodities。
Themembersofthecommunityaredirectlyassociatedforproduction;theworkisdistributedaccordingtotraditionandrequirements，andlikewisetheproductstotheextentthattheyaredestinedforconsumption。Directsocialproductionanddirectdistributionprecludeallexchangeofcommodities，thereforealsothetransformationoftheproductsintocommodities(atanyratewithinthecommunity)andconsequentlyalsotheirtransformationintovalues。
Fromthemomentwhensocietyentersintopossessionofthemeansofproductionandusesthemindirectassociationforproduction，thelabourofeachindividual，howevervarieditsspecificallyusefulcharactermaybe，becomesatthestartanddirectlysociallabour。Thequantityofsociallabourcontainedinaproductneednotthenbeestablishedinaroundaboutway;dailyexperienceshowsinadirectwayhowmuchofitisrequiredontheaverage。Societycansimplycalculatehowmanyhoursoflabourarecontainedinasteam-engine，abushelofwheatofthelastharvest，orahundredsquareyardsofclothofacertainquality。Itcouldthereforeneveroccurtoitstilltoexpressthequantitiesoflabourputintotheproducts，quantitieswhichitwillthenknowdirectlyandintheirabsoluteamounts，inathirdproduct，inameasurewhich，besides，isonlyrelative，fluctuating，inadequate，thoughformerlyunavoidableforlackofabetterone，ratherthanexpressthemintheirnatural，adequateandabsolutemeasure，time。Justaslittleasitwouldoccurtochemicalsciencestilltoexpressatomicweightinaroundaboutway，relatively，bymeansofthehydrogenatom，ifitwereabletoexpressthemabsolutely，intheiradequatemeasure，namelyinactualweights，inbillionthsorquadrillionthsofagramme。Hence，ontheassumptionswemadeabove，societywillnotassignvaluestoproducts。Itwillnotexpressthesimplefactthatthehundredsquareyardsofclothhaverequiredfortheirproduction，say，athousandhoursoflabourintheobliqueandmeaninglessway，statingthattheyhavethevalueofathousandhoursoflabour。Itistruethateventhenitwillstillbenecessaryforsocietytoknowhowmuchlaboureacharticleofconsumptionrequiresforitsproduction。Itwillhavetoarrangeitsplanofproductioninaccordancewithitsmeansofproduction，whichinclude，inparticular，itslabour-powers。Theusefuleffectsofthevariousarticlesofconsumption，comparedwithoneanotherandwiththequantitiesoflabourrequiredfortheirproduction，willintheenddeterminetheplan。Peoplewillbeabletomanageeverythingverysimply，withouttheinterventionofmuch-vaunted“value“。*15
Theconceptofvalueisthemostgeneralandthereforethemostcomprehensiveexpressionoftheeconomicconditionsofcommodityproduction。
Consequently，thisconceptcontainsthegerm，notonlyofmoney，butalsoofallthemoredevelopedformsoftheproductionandexchangeofcommodities。
Thefactthatvalueistheexpressionofthesociallabourcontainedintheprivatelyproducedproductsitselfcreatesthepossibilityofadifferencearisingbetweenthissociallabourandtheprivatelabourcontainedinthesesameproducts。Ifthereforeaprivateproducercontinuestoproduceintheoldway，whilethesocialmodeofproductiondevelopsthisdifferencewillbecomepalpablyevidenttohim。Thesameresultfollowswhentheaggregateofprivateproducersofaparticularclassofgoodsproducesaquantityofthemwhichexceedstherequirementsofsociety。Thefactthatthevalueofacommodityisexpressedonlyintermsofanothercommodity，andcanonlyberealisedinexchangeforit，admitsofthepossibilitythattheexchangemaynevertakeplacealtogether，oratleastmaynotrealisethecorrectvalue。Finally，whenthespecificcommoditylabour-powerappearsonthemarket，itsvalueisdetermined，likethatofanyothercommodity，bythelabour-timesociallynecessaryforitsproduction。Thevalueformofproductsthereforealreadycontainsinembryothewholecapitalistformofproduction，theantagonismbetweencapitalistsandwage-workers，theindustrialreservearmy，crises。Toseektoabolishthecapitalistformofproductionbyestablishing“truevalue“{D。K。G。78}isthereforetantamounttoattemptingtoabolishCatholicismbyestablishingthe“true“Pope，ortosetupasocietyinwhichatlasttheproducerscontroltheirproduct，byconsistentlycarryingintolifeaneconomiccategorywhichisthemostcomprehensiveexpressionoftheenslavementoftheproducersbytheirownproduct。
Oncethecommodity-producingsocietyhasfurtherdevelopedthevalueform，whichisinherentincommoditiesassuch，tothemoneyform，variousgermsstillhiddeninvaluebreakthroughtothelightofday。
Thefirstandmostessentialeffectisthegeneralisationofthecommodityform。Moneyforcesthecommodityformevenontheobjectswhichhavehithertobeenproduceddirectlyforself-consumption;itdragsthemintoexchange。
Therebythecommodityformandmoneypenetratetheinternalhusbandryofthecommunitiesdirectlyassociatedforproduction;theybreakonetieofcommunionafteranother，anddissolvethecommunityintoamassofprivateproducers。Atfirst，ascanbeseeninIndia，moneyreplacesjointtillageofthesoilbyindividualtillage;atalaterstageitputsanendtothecommonownershipofthetillagearea，whichstillmanifestsitselfinperiodicalredistribution，byafinaldivision(forexampleinthevillagecommunitiesontheMosel;anditisnowbeginningalsointheRussianvillagecommunes);
finally，itforcesthedividing-upofwhateverwoodlandandpasturageisstillownedincommon。Whateverothercausesarisinginthedevelopmentofproductionarealsooperatinghere，moneyalwaysremainsthemostpowerfulmeansthroughwhichtheirinfluenceisexertedonthecommunities。And，despiteall“lawsandadministrativeregulations“{D。C。323}，moneywouldwiththesamenaturalnecessityinevitablybreakuptheDühringeconomiccommune，ifitevercameintoexistence。
Wehavealreadyseenabove(“PoliticalEconomy“，VI)thatitisacontradictioninitselftospeakofthevalueoflabour。Asundercertainsocialrelationslabourproducesnotonlyproductsbutalsovalue，andthisvalueismeasuredbylabour，thelattercanaslittlehaveaseparatevalueasweight，assuch，canhaveaseparateweight，orheat，aseparatetemperature。Butitisthecharacteristicpeculiarityofallsocialconfusionthatruminateson“truevalue“{D。K。G。78}toimaginethatinexistingsocietytheworkerdoesnotreceivethefull“value“ofhislabour，andthatsocialismisdestinedtoremedythis。Henceitisnecessaryinthefirstplacetodiscoverwhatthevalueoflabouris，andthisisdonebyattemptingtomeasurelabour，notbyitsadequatemeasure，time，butbyitsproduct。Theworkershouldreceivethe“fullproceedsoflabour“{D。
C。324}。[124]Notonlythelabourproduct，butlabouritselfshouldbedirectlyexchangeableforproductsonehour’slabourfortheproductofanotherhour’slabour。Thishowever，givesriseatoncetoavery“serious“hitch。Thewholeproductisdistributed。Themostimportantprogressivefunctionofsociety，accumulation，istakenfromsocietyandputintothehands，placedatthearbitrarydiscretion，ofindividuals。Theindividualscandowhattheylikewiththeir“proceeds“，butsocietyatbestremainsasrichorpoorasitwas。Themeansofproductionaccumulatedinthepasthavethereforebeencentralisedinthehandsofsocietyonlyinorderthatallmeansofproductionaccumulatedinthefuturemayonceagainbedispersedinthehandsofindividuals。Oneknockstopiecesone’sownpremises;onehasarrivedatapureabsurdity。
Fluidlabour，activelabour-power，istobeexchangedfortheproductoflabour。Thenlabour-powerisacommodity，justliketheproductforwhichitistobeexchanged。Thenthevalueofthislabour-powerisnotinanysensedeterminedbyitsproduct，butbythesociallabourembodiedinit，accordingtothepresentlawofwages。
Butitispreciselythiswhichmustnotbe，wearetold。Fluidlabour，labour-power，shouldbeexchangeableforitsfullproduct。Thatistosay，itshouldbeexchangeablenotforitsvalue，butforitsuse-value;thelawofvalueistoapplytoallothercommodities，butmustberepealedsofaraslabour-powerisconcerned。Suchistheself-destructiveconfusionthatliesbehindthe“valueoflabour“。
The“exchangeoflabourforlabourontheprincipleofequalvaluation“
{256}，insofarasithasanymeaning，thatistosay，themutualexchangeabilityofproductsofequalsociallabour，hencethelawofvalue，isthefundamentallawofpreciselycommodityproduction，hencealsoofitshighestform，capitalistproduction。Itassertsitselfinpresent-daysocietyintheonlywayinwhicheconomiclawscanassertthemselvesinasocietyofprivateproducers:asablindlyoperatinglawofnatureinherentinthingsandrelations，andindependentofthewilloractionsoftheproducers。Byelevatingthislawtothebasiclawofhiseconomiccommuneanddemandingthatthecommuneshouldexecuteitinallconsciousness，HerrDühringconvertsthebasiclawofexistingsocietyintothebasiclawofhisimaginarysociety。Hewantsexistingsociety，butwithoutitsabuses。InthisheoccupiesthesamepositionasProudhon。Likehim，hewantstoabolishtheabuseswhichhavearisenoutofthedevelopmentofcommodityproductionintocapitalistproduction，bygivingeffectagainstthemtothebasiclawofcommodityproduction，preciselythelawtowhoseoperationtheseabusesaredue。Likehim，hewantstoabolishtherealconsequencesofthelawofvaluebymeansoffantasticones。
OurmodernDonQuixote，seatedonhisnobleRosinante，the“universalprincipleofjustice“{D。C。282}，andfollowedbyhisvaliantSanchoPanza，AbrahamEnss，setsoutproudlyonhisknighterrantrytowinMambrin’shelmet，the“valueoflabour“;butwefear，feargreatly，hewillbringhomenothingbuttheoldfamiliarbarber’sbasin。
V。
STATE，FAMILY，EDUCATIONWiththetwolastchapterswehaveaboutexhaustedtheeconomiccontentofHerrDühring’s“newsocialitariansystem“
{D。Ph。295}。Theonlypointwemightaddisthathis“universalrangeofhistoricalsurvey“{D。K。G。2}doesnotintheleastpreventhimfromsafeguardinghisownspecialinterests，evenapartfromthemoderatesurplusconsumptionreferredtoaboveAstheolddivisionoflabourcontinuestoexistinthesocialitariansystem，theeconomiccommunewillhavetoreckonnotonlywitharchitectsandporters{500}，butalsowithprofessionalwriters，andthequestionwillthenarisehowauthors’rightsaretobedealtwith。ThisquestionisonewhichoccupiesHerrDühring’sattentionmorethananyother。Everywhere，forexample，inconnectionwithLouisBlancandProudhon{D。C。302;D。K。G。482-83}，thereaderstumblesacrossthequestionofauthors’rights，untilitisfinallybroughtsafelyintothehavenof“sociality“，afteracircumstantialdiscussionoccupyingninefullpagesoftheCursus，intheformofamysterious“remunerationoflabour“{D。C。307}——whetherwithorwithoutmoderatesurplusconsumption，isnotstated。Achapteronthepositionoffleasinthenaturalsystemofsocietywouldhavebeenjustasappropriateandinanycasefarlesstedious。
ThePhilosophiegivesdetailedprescriptionsfortheorganisationofthestateofthefuture。HereRousseau，although“thesoleimportantforerunner“{D。Ph。264}ofHerrDühring，neverthelessdidnotlaythefoundationsdeepenough;hismoreprofoundsuccessorputsthisrightbycompletelywateringdownRousseauandmixinginremnantsoftheHegelianphilosophyofright，alsoreducedtoawaterymess。“Thesovereigntyoftheindividual“{268}formsthebasisoftheDühringianstateofthefuture;itisnottobesuppressedbytheruleofthemajority，buttofinditsrealculminationinit。Howdoesthiswork？Verysimply。
“Ifonepresupposesagreementsbetweeneachindividualandeveryotherindividualinalldirections，andiftheobjectoftheseagreementsismutualaidagainstunjustoffences——thenthepowerrequiredforthemaintenanceofrightisonlystrengthened，andrightisnotdeducedfromthemoresuperiorstrengthofthemanyagainsttheindividualorofthemajorityagainsttheminority“{268}。
Suchistheeasewithwhichthelivingforceofthehocus-pocusofthephilosophyofrealitysurmountsthemostimpassableobstacles;andifthereaderthinksthatafterthatheisnowiserthanhewasbefore，HerrDühringrepliesthathereallymustnotthinkitissuchasimplematter，for“theslightesterrorintheconceptionoftheroleofthecollectivewillwoulddestroythesovereigntyoftheindividual，andthissovereigntyistheonlything“(！)“conducivetothedeductionofrealrights“{268}。
HerrDühringtreatshispublicasitdeserves，whenhemakesgameofit。Hecouldhavelaiditonmuchthicker;thestudentsofthephilosophyofrealitywouldnothavenoticeditanyhow。
Nowthesovereigntyoftheindividualconsistsessentiallyinthat“theindividualissubjecttoabsolutecompulsionbythestate“;
thiscompulsion，however，canonlybejustifiedinsofarasit“reallyservesnaturaljustice“{271}。Withthisendinviewtherewillbe“legislativeandjudicialauthority“，which，however，“mustremaininthehandsofthecommunity“{272};andtherewillalsobeanalliancefordefence，whichwillfindexpressionin“jointactioninthearmyorinanexecutivesectionforthemaintenanceofinternalsecurity“{273}，thatistosay，therewillalsobearmy，police，gendarmerie。HerrDühringhasmanytimesalreadyshownthatheisagoodPrussian;hereheproveshimselfapeerofthatmodelPrussian，who，asthelateMinistervonRochowputit，“carrieshisgendarmeinhisbreast“。Thisgendarmerieofthefuture，however，willnotbesodangerousasthepolicethugs[125]ofthepresentday。Whateverthesovereignindividualmaysufferattheirhands，hewillalwayshaveoneconsolation:
“therightorwrongwhich，accordingtothecircumstances，maythenbedealttohimbyfreesocietycanneverbean，worsethanthatwhichthestateofnaturewouldhavebroughtwithit“{D。Ph。
274}！
Andthen，afterHerrDühringhasoncemoretrippedusuponthoseauthors’rightsofhiswhicharealwaysgettingintheway，heassuresusthatinhisworldofthefuturetherewillbe，“ofcourse，anabsolutelyfreeBaravailabletoall“
{279}。
“Thefreesociety，asitisconceivedtoday“{304}，getssteadilymoreandmoremixed。Architects，porters，professionalwriters，gendarmes，andnowalsobarristers！This“worldofsoberandcriticalthought“{D。C。
556-57}andthevariousheavenlykingdomsofthedifferentreligions，inwhichthebelieveralwaysfindsintransfiguredformthethingswhichhavesweetenedhisearthlyexistence，areaslikeastwopeas。AndHerrDühringisacitizenofthestatewhere“everyonecanbehappyinhisownway“。[126]Whatmoredowewant？
Butitdoesnotmatterwhatwewant。WhatmattersiswhatHerrDühringwants。AndhediffersfromFrederickIIinthis，thatintheDühringianfuturestatecertainlynoteveryonewillbeabletobehappyinhisownway。Theconstitutionofthisfuturestateprovides:
“Inthefreesocietytherecanbenoreligiousworship;foreverymemberofithasgotbeyondtheprimitivechildishsuperstitionthattherearebeings，behindnatureoraboveit，whocanbeinfluencedbysacrificesorprayers“{D。Ph。286}。A“socialitariansystem，rightlyconceived，hastherefore……toabolishalltheparaphernaliaofreligiousmagic，andtherewithalltheessentialelementsofreligiousworship“{D。C。345}。
Religionisbeingprohibited。
Allreligion，however，isnothingbutthefantasticreflectioninmen’smindsofthoseexternalforceswhichcontroltheirdailylife，areflectioninwhichtheterrestrialforcesassumetheformofsupernaturalforces。Inthebeginningsofhistoryitwastheforcesofnaturewhichwerefirstsoreflected，andwhichinthecourseoffurtherevolutionunderwentthemostmanifoldandvariedpersonificationsamongthevariouspeoples。
Thisearlyprocesshasbeentracedbackbycomparativemythology，atleastinthecaseoftheIndo-Europeanpeoples，toitsoriginintheIndianVedas，andinitsfurtherevolutionithasbeendemonstratedindetailamongtheIndians，Persians，Greeks，Romans，Germansand，sofarasmaterialisavailable，alsoamongtheCelts，LithuaniansandSlavs。Butitisnotlongbefore，sidebysidewiththeforcesofnature，socialforcesbegintobeactive——forceswhichconfrontmanasequallyalienandatfirstequallyinexplicable，dominatinghimwiththesameapparentnaturalnecessityastheforcesofnaturethemselves。Thefantasticfigures，whichatfirstonlyreflectedthemysteriousforcesofnature，atthispointacquiresocialattributes，becomerepresentativesoftheforcesofhistory。*16Atastillfurtherstageofevolution，allthenaturalandsocialattributesofthenumerousgodsaretransferredtoonealmightygod，whoisbutareflectionoftheabstractman。Suchwastheoriginofmonotheism，whichwashistoricallythelastproductofthevulgarisedphilosophyofthelaterGreeksandfounditsincarnationintheexclusivelynationalgodoftheJews，Jehovah。Inthisconvenient，handyanduniversallyadaptableform，religioncancontinuetoexistastheimmediate，thatis，thesentimentalformofmen’srelationtothealien，naturalandsocial，forceswhichdominatethem，solongasmenremainunderthecontroloftheseforces。However，wehaveseenrepeatedlythatinexistingbourgeoissocietymenaredominatedbytheeconomicconditionscreatedbythemselves，bythemeansofproductionwhichtheythemselveshaveproduced，asifbyanalienforce。Theactualbasisofthereligiousreflectiveactivitythereforecontinuestoexist，andwithitthereligiousreflectionitself。Andalthoughbourgeoispoliticaleconomyhasgivenacertaininsightintothecausalconnectionofthisaliendomination，thismakesnoessentialdifference。Bourgeoiseconomicscanneitherpreventcrisesingeneral，norprotecttheindividualcapitalistsfromlosses，baddebtsandbankruptcy，norsecuretheindividualworkersagainstunemploymentanddestitution。ItisstilltruethatmanproposesandGod(thatis，thealiendominationofthecapitalistmodeofproduction)
disposes。Mereknowledge，evenifitwentmuchfurtheranddeeperthanthatofbourgeoiseconomicscience，isnotenoughtobringsocialforcesunderthedominationofsociety。Whatisaboveallnecessaryforthis，isasocialact。Andwhenthisacthasbeenaccomplished，whensociety，bytakingpossessionofallmeansofproductionandusingthemonaplannedbasis，hasfreeditselfandallitsmembersfromthebondageinwhichtheyarenowheldbythesemeansofproductionwhichtheythemselveshaveproducedbutwhichconfrontthemasanirresistiblealienforce，whenthereforemannolongermerelyproposes，butalsodisposes——onlythenwillthelastalienforcewhichisstillreflectedinreligionvanish;andwithitwillalsovanishthereligiousreflectionitself，forthesimplereasonthatthentherewillbenothinglefttoreflect。
HerrDühring，however，cannotwaituntilreligiondiesthis，itsnatural，death。Heproceedsinmoredeep-rootedfashion。Heout-BismarcksBismarck;hedecreessharperMaylaws[127]notmerelyagainstCatholicism，butagainstallreligionwhatsoever;heinciteshisgendarmesofthefutureagainstreligion，andtherebyhelpsittomartyrdomandaprolongedleaseoflife。Whereverweturn，wefindspecificallyPrussiansocialism。
AfterHerrDühringhasthushappilydestroyedreligion，“man，madetorelysolelyonhimselfandnature，andmaturedintheknowledgeofhiscollectivepowers，canintrepidlyenteronalltheroadswhichthecourseofeventsandhisownbeingopentohim“{D。Ph。407}。
Letusnowconsiderforachangewhat“courseofevents“themanmadetorelyonhimselfcanintrepidlyenteron，ledbyHerrDühring。
Thefirstcourseofeventswherebymanismadetorelyonhimselfis:beingborn。Then，fortheperiodofnaturalminority，heremainscommittedtothe“naturaltutorofchildren“，hismother。“Thisperiodmaylast，asinancientRomanlaw，untilpuberty，thatistosay，untilaboutthefourteenthyear。”Onlywhenbadlybroughtupolderboysdonotpayproperrespecttotheirmother’sauthoritywillrecoursebehadtopaternalassistance，andparticularlytothepubliceducationalregulationstoremedythis。Atpubertythechildbecomessubjectto“thenaturalguardianshipofhisfather“，ifthereissuchaone“ofrealanduncontestedpaternity“{293，294};otherwisethecommunityappointsaguardian。
JustasHerrDühringatanearlierpointimaginedthatthecapitalistmodeofproductioncouldbereplacedbythesocialwithouttransformingproductionitself，sonowhefanciesthatthemodernbourgeoisfamilycanbetornfromitswholeeconomicfoundationswithoutchangingitsentireform。Tohim，thisformissoimmutablethatheevenmakes“ancientRomanlaw“{293}，thoughinasomewhat“ennobled“form，governthefamilyforalltime;andhecanconceiveafamilyonlyasa“bequeathing“{D。C。291}，whichmeansapossessing，unit。HeretheutopiansarefarinadvanceofHerrDühring。Theyconsideredthatthesocialisationofyoutheducationand，withthis，realfreedominthemutualrelationsbetweenmembersofafamily，woulddirectlyfollowfromthefreeassociationofmenandthetransformationofprivatedomesticworkintoapublicindustry。Moreover，Marxhasalreadyshown(Capital，{Vol。I，}p。515etseqq。)
that“modernindustry，byassigningasitdoesanimportantpartinthesociallyorganisedprocessofproduction，outsidethedomesticsphere，towomen，toyoungpersons，andtochildrenofbothsexes，createsaneweconomicfoundationforahigherformofthefamilyandoftherelationsbetweenthesexes“。
“Everydreamerofsocialreforms。”saysHerrDühring，“naturallyhasreadyapedagogycorrespondingtohisnewsociallife“{D。K。G。295}。
Ifwearetojudgebythisthesis，HerrDühringis“averitablemonster“
{261}amongthedreamersofsocialreforms。Fortheschoolofthefutureoccupieshisattentionattheveryleastasmuchastheauthor’srights，andthisisreallysayingagreatdeal。Hehashiscurriculaforschoolanduniversityallreadyandcomplete，notonlyforthewhole“foreseeablefuture“{D。Ph。1}butalsoforthetransitionperiod。Butwewillconfineourselvestowhatwillbetaughttotheyoungpeopleofbothsexesinthefinalandultimatesocialitariansystem。
Theuniversalpeople’sschoolwillprovide“everythingwhichbyitselfandinprinciplecanhaveanyattractionforman“，andthereforeinparticularthe“foundationsandmainconclusionsofallsciencestouchingontheunderstandingoftheworldandoflife“
{284}。Inthefirstplace，therefore，itteachesmathematics，andindeedtosucheffectthatthefieldofallfundamentalconceptsandmethods，fromsimplenumerationandadditiontotheintegralcalculus，is“completelycompassed“{418}。
Butthisdoesnotmeanthatinthisschoolanyonewillreallydifferentiateorintegrate。Onthecontrary。Whatistobetaughttherewillbe，rather，entirelynewelementsofgeneralmathematics，whichcontaininembryobothordinaryelementaryandhighermathematics。AndalthoughHerrDühringassertsthathealreadyhasinhismind“schematically，intheirmainoutlines“，“thecontentsofthetextbooks“{415}whichtheschoolofthefuturewilluse，hehasunfortunatelynotasyetsucceededindiscoveringthese“elementsofgeneralmathematics“;
andwhathecannotachieve“canonlyreallybeexpectedfromthefreeandenhancedforcesofthenewsocialorder“{D。Ph。418}。
Butifthegrapesofthemathematicsofthefuturearestillverysour，futureastronomy，mechanicsandphysicswillpresentallthelessdifficultyandwill“providethekernelofallschooling“，while“thescienceofplantsandanimals，which，inspiteofalltheories，ismainlyofadescriptivecharacter“willserve“ratherastopicsforlightconversation“{416-17}。
Thereitis，inblackandwhite，inthePhilosophie，page417。EventothepresentdayHerrDühringknowsnootherbotanyandzoologythanthosewhicharemainlydescriptive。Thewholeoforganicmorphology，whichembracesthecomparativeanatomy，embryology，andpalaeontologyoftheorganicworld，isentirelyunknowntohimevenbyname。Whileinthesphereofbiologytotallynewsciencesarespringingup，almostbythedozen，behindhisback，hispuerilespiritstillgoestoRaff’sNaturgeschichtefurKinderfor“theeminentlymoderneducativeelementsprovidedbythenatural-scientificmodeofthought“{D。K。G。504}，andthisconstitutionoftheorganicworldhedecreeslikewiseforthewhole“foreseeablefuture“。
Here，too，asishiswont，heentirelyforgetschemistry。
Asfortheaestheticsideofeducation，HerrDühringwillhavetofashionitallanew。Thepoetryofthepastisworthlessforthispurpose。Whereallreligionisprohibited，itgoeswithoutsayingthatthe“mythologicalorotherreligioustrimmings“characteristicofpoetsuptonowcannotbetoleratedinthisschool。“Poeticmysticism“，too，“suchas，forexample，Goethepracticedsoextensively“，istobecondemned。
HerrDühringwillthereforehavetomakeuphismindtoproduceforusthosepoeticmasterpieceswhich“areinaccordwiththehigherclaimsofanimaginationreconciledwithreason“，andrepresentthegenuineideal，which“denotestheconsummationoftheworld“{D。Ph。423}。Lethimnottarrywithit！TheeconomiccommunecanachieveitsconquestoftheworldonlywhenitmovesalongattheAlexandrinedouble，reconciledwithreason。
Theadolescentcitizenofthefuturewillnotbemuchtroubledwithphilology。
“Thedeadlanguageswillbeentirelydiscarded……theforeignlivinglanguages，however，……willremainofsecondaryimportance。”Onlywhereintercoursebetweennationsextendstothemovementofthemassesofthepeoplesthemselveswouldtheselanguagesbemadeaccessible，accordingtoneedsandinaneasyform。“Reallyeducativestudyoflanguage“willbeprovidedbyakindofgeneralgrammar，andparticularlybystudyofthe“substanceandformofone’sownlanguage“{426-27}。
Thenationalnarrow-mindednessofmodernmanisstillmuchtoocosmopolitanforHerrDühring。Hewantsalsotodoawaywiththetwoleverswhichintheworldasitistodaygiveatleasttheopportunityofrisingabovethenarrownationalstandpoint:knowledgeoftheancientlanguages，whichopensawidercommonhorizonatleasttothosepeopleofvariousnationalitieswhohavehadaclassicaleducation;andknowledgeofmodernlanguages，throughthemediumofwhichalonethepeopleofdifferentnationscanmakethemselvesunderstoodbyoneanotherandacquaintthemselveswithwhatishappeningbeyondtheirownborders。Onthecontrary，thegrammarofthemothertongueistobethoroughlydrilledin。“Substanceandformofone’sownlanguage“，however，becomeintelligibleonlywhenitsoriginandgradualevolutionaretraced，andthiscannotbedonewithouttakingintoaccount，first，itsownextinctforms，andsecondly，cognatelanguages，bothlivinganddead。Butthisbringsusbackagaintoterritorywhichhasbeenexpresslyforbidden。IfHerrDühringstrikesoutofhiscurriculumallmodernhistoricalgrammar，thereisnothingleftforhislanguagestudiesbuttheold-fashionedtechnicalgrammar，cuttotheoldclassicalphilologicalpattern，withallitscasuistryandarbitrariness，basedonthelackofanyhistoricalbasis。Hishatredoftheoldphilologymakeshimelevatetheveryworstproductoftheoldphilologyto“thecentralpointofthereallyeducativestudyoflanguage“{427}。Itisclearthatwehavebeforeusalinguistwhohasneverheardawordofthetremendousandsuccessfuldevelopmentofthehistoricalscienceoflanguagewhichtookplaceduringthelastsixtyyears，andwhothereforeseeks“theeminentlymoderneducativeelements“{D。K。G。504}oflinguistics，notinBopp，GrimmandDiez，butinHeyseandBeckerofblessedmemory。
Butallthiswouldstillfallfarshortofmakingtheyoungcitizenofthefuture“relyonhimself“。Toachievethis，itisnecessaryhereagaintolayadeeperfoundation，bymeansof“theassimilationofthelatestphilosophicalprinciples“。“Suchadeepeningofthefoundation，however，willnotbe……atallagigantictask“，nowthatHerrDühringhasclearedthepath。Infact，“ifonepurgesofthespurious，scholasticexcrescencesthosefewstrictlyscientifictruthsofwhichthegeneralschematicsofbeingcanboast，anddeterminestoadmitasvalidonlytherealityauthenticated“byHerrDühring，elementaryphilosophybecomesperfectlyaccessiblealsototheyouthofthefuture。“Recalltoyourmindtheextremelysimplemethodsbywhichwehelpedforwardtheconceptsofinfinityandtheircritiquetoahithertounknownimport“——andthen“youwillnotbeabletoseeatallwhytheelementsoftheuniversalconceptionofspaceandtime，whichhavebeengivensuchsimpleformbythedeepeningandsharpeningnoweffected，shouldnoteventuallypassintotheranksoftheelementarystudies……
Themostdeep-rootedideas“ofHerrDühring“shouldplaynosecondaryroleintheuniversaleducationalschemeofthenewsociety“{D。Ph。427-28}。
Theself-equalstateofmatterandthecounteduncountableareonthecontrarydestined“notmerelytoputmanonhisownfeetbutalsotomakehimrealiseofhimselfthathehastheso-calledabsoluteunderfoot“。
Thepeople’sschoolofthefuture，asonecansee，isnothingbutasomewhat“ennobled“PrussiangrammarschoolinwhichGreekandLatinarereplacedbyalittlemorepureandappliedmathematicsandinparticularbytheelementsofthephilosophyofreality，andtheteachingofGermanisbroughtbacktoBecker，ofblessedmemory，thatis，downtoaboutafourth-formlevel。Andinfact，nowthatwehavedemonstratedHerrDühring’smereschoolboy“knowledge“inallthespheresonwhichhehastouched，thereaderwill“notbeabletoseeatall“whyit，orrather，suchofitasisleftafterourpreliminarythorough“purging“，shouldnotallandsundry“eventuallypassintotheranksoftheelementarystudies“——inasmuchasinrealityithasneverlefttheseranks。True，HerrDühringhasheardsomethingaboutthecombinationofworkandinstructioninsocialistsociety，whichistoensureanall-roundtechnicaleducationaswellasapracticalfoundationforscientifictraining;andthispoint，tooisthereforebroughtin，inhisusualway，tohelpthesocialitarianscheme{284，414}。Butbecause，aswehaveseen，theolddivisionoflabour，initsessentials，istoremainundisturbedintheDühringianproductionofthefuture，thistechnicaltrainingatschoolisdeprivedofanypracticalapplicationlateron，oranysignificanceforproductionitself;ithasapurposeonlywithintheschool:itistoreplacegymnastics，whichourdeep-rootedrevolutioniserwantstoignorealtogether。Hecanthereforeofferusonlyafewphrases，asforexample，“youngandoldwillwork，intheserioussenseoftheword“{D。C。
328}。
ThisspinelessandmeaninglessrantingisreallypitifulwhenonecomparesitwiththepassageinCapital，pages508to515，inwhichMarxdevelopsthethesisthat“fromtheFactorysystembudded，asRobertOwenhasshownusindetail，thegermoftheeducationofthefuture，aneducationthatwill，inthecaseofeverychildoveragivenage，combineproductivelabourwithinstructionandgymnastics，notonlyasoneofthemethodsofaddingtotheefficiencyofproduction，butastheonlymethodofproducingfullydevelopedhumanbeings“。
Wemustskiptheuniversityofthefuture，inwhichthephilosophyofrealitywillbethekernelofallknowledge，andwhere，alongsidetheFacultyofMedicine，theFacultyofLawwillcontinueinfullbloom;wemustalsoomitthe“specialtraininginstitutions“，aboutwhichallwelearnisthattheywillbeonly“forafewsubjects“。Letusassumethattheyoungcitizenofthefuturehaspassedallhiseducationalcoursesandhasatlastbeen“madetorelyuponhimself“sufficientlytobeabletolookaboutforawife。WhatisthecourseofeventswhichHerrDühringoffershiminthissphere？
“Inviewoftheimportanceofpropagationfortheconservation，elimination，blending，andevennewcreativedevelopmentofqualities，theultimaterootsofthehumanandunhumanmusttoagreatextentbesoughtinsexualunionandselection，andfurthermoreinthecaretakenfororagainsttheensuringofcertainbirthresults。Wemustleaveitpracticallytoalaterepochtojudgethebrutalityandstupiditynowrifeinthissphere。Neverthelesswemustatleastmakeclearfromtheoutset，eveninspiteoftheweightofprejudice，thatfarmoreimportantthanthenumberofbirthsissurelywhethernatureorhumancircumspectionsucceededorfailedinregardtotheirquality。Itistruethatatalltimesandunderalllegalsystemsmonstrositieshavebeendestroyed;butthereisawiderangeofdegreesbetweenthenormalhumanbeinganddeformitieswhichlackallresemblancetothehumanbeing……Itisobviouslyanadvantagetopreventthebirthofahumanbeingwhowouldonlybeadefectivecreature“{D。Ph。246}。
Anotherpassageruns:
Philosophicthoughtcanfindnodifficulty……incomprehendingtherightoftheunbornworldtothebestpossiblecomposition……Conceptionand，ifneedbe，alsobirthoffertheopportunityforpreventive，orinexceptionalcasesselective，careinthisconnection“{395-96}。
Again:
“Grecianart——theidealisationofmaninmarble——willnotbeabletoretainitshistoricalimportancewhenthelessartistic，andtherefore，fromthestandpointofthefateofthemillions，farmoreimportanttaskofperfectingthehumanforminfleshandbloodistakeninhand。Thisformofartdoesnotmerelydealwithstone，anditsaestheticsisnotconcernedwiththecontemplationofdeadforms“{256}——andsoon。
Ourbuddingcitizenofthefutureisbroughttoearthagain。EvenwithoutHerrDühring’shelphecertainlyknewthatmarriageisnotanartwhichmerelydealswithstone，orevenwiththecontemplationofdeadforms;
butafterall，HerrDühringhad:promisedhimthathewouldbeabletostrikeoutalongallroadswhichthecourseofeventsandhisownnatureopenedtohim，inordertodiscoverasympatheticfemalehearttogetherwiththebodybelongingtoit。Nothingofthekind——the“deeperandstrictermorality“{D。Ph。396}thundersathim。ThefirstthingthathemustdoistocastoffthebrutalityandstupiditynowrifeintheIsphereofsexualunionandselection，andbearinmindtherightof’thenew-bornworldtothebestpossiblecomposition。Atthissolemnmomentitistohimamatterofperfectingthehumanforminfleshandblood，ofbecomingaPhidias，sotospeak，infleshandblood。Howishetosetaboutit？
HerrDühring’smysteriousutterancesquotedabovegivehimnottheslightestindication，althoughHerrDühringhimselfsaysitisan“art“。HasHerrDühringperhaps“inhismind’seye，schematically“，atextbookalsoonthissubject——ofthekindofwhich，insealedwrappers，Germanbookshopsarenowsofull？Indeed，wearenolongerinsocialitariansociety，butratherintheMagicFlute[128]——theonlydifferencebeingthatSarastro，thestoutMasonicpriest，wouldhardlyrankasa“priestofthesecondorder“{460}incomparisonwithourdeeperandstrictermoralist。Thetests~towhichSarastroputhiscoupleoflove’sadeptsaremerechild’splaycomparedwiththeterrifyingexaminationthroughwhichHerrDühringputshistwosovereignindividualsbeforehepermitsthemtoenterthestateof“freeandethicalmarriage“
{296}。Andsoitmayhappenthatour“made-to-be-self-reliant“Taminoofthefuturemayindeedhavetheso-calledabsoluteunderfoot，butoneofhisfeetmaybeacoupleofrungsshortofwhatitshouldbe，sothateviltonguescallhimaclub-foot。Itisalsowithintherealmofthepossiblethathisbest-belovedPaminaofthefuturedoesnotholdherselfquitestraightontheabove-saidabsolute，owingtoaslightdeviationinthedirectionofherrightshoulderwhichjealoustonguesmightevencallalittlehump。Whatthen？WillourdeeperandstricterSarastroforbidthemtopracticetheartofperfectinghumanity，infleshandblood;willheexercisehis“preventivecare“at“conception“，orhis“selectivecare“
at“birth“{396}？Tentoone，thingswillhappenotherwise;thepairofloverswillleaveSarastro-Dühringwherehestandsandgoofftotheregistryoffice。
Holdonthere！HerrDühringcries。Thisisnotatallwhatwasmeant。Givemeachancetoexplain！
Ifthe“higher，genuinelyhumanmotivesofwholesomesexualunions……
thehumanlyennobledformofsexualexcitement，whichinitsintensemanifestationispassionatelove，whenreciprocatedisthebestguaranteeofaunionwhichwillbeacceptablealsoinitsresult……itisonlyaneffectofthesecondorderthatfromarelationwhichinitselfisharmoniousasymphoniouslycomposedproductshouldresult。Fromthisinturnitfollowsthatanycompulsionmusthaveharmfuleffects“{247}——andsoon。
Andthusallendstheverybestwayinthebestofallpossiblesocialitarianworlds:club-footandhunchbackloveeachotherpassionately，andthereforeintheirreciprocalrelationofferthebestguaranteeforaharmonious“effectofthesecondorder“;itisalljustlikeanovel——theyloveeachother，theygeteachother，andallthedeeperandstrictermorality{396}turnsoutasusualtobeharmonioustwaddle。
HerrDühring’snobleideasaboutthefemalesexingeneralcanbegatheredfromthefollowingindictmentofexistingsociety:
“Inasocietyofoppressionbasedonthesaleofhumanbeingtohumanbeing，prostitutionisacceptedasthenaturalcomplementofcompulsorymarriagetiesinthemen’sfavour，anditisoneofthemostcomprehensiblebutalsomostsignificantfactsthatnothingofthekindispossibleforthewomen“{291-92}。
Iwouldnotcare，foranythingintheworld，tohavethethankswhichmightaccruetoHerrDühringfromthewomenforthiscompliment。ButhasHerrDühringreallyneverheardoftheformofincomeknownasapetticoat-pension{Schurzenstipendien}，whichisnownolongerquiteanexceptionalthing？HerrDühringhimselfwasonceareferendary[129]andhelivesinBerlin，whereeveninmyday，thirty-sixyearsago，tosaynothingoflieutenantsReferendariuswasusedoftenenoughtorhymewithSchurzenstipendarius！
***Maythereaderpermitustotakeleaveofoursubject，whichhasoftenbeendryandgloomyenough，onanoteoffacetiousnessandreconciliation。
Solongaswehadtodealwiththeseparateissuesraised，ourjudgmentwasboundbytheobjective，incontrovertiblefacts，andonthebasisofthesefactsitwasoftenenoughnecessarilysharpandevenhard。Nowwhenphilosophy，economicsandsocialitariansystemallliebehindus;whenwehavebeforeusthepictureoftheauthorasawhole，whichwehadpreviouslytojudgeindetail——nowhumanconsiderationscancomeintotheforeground;
atthispointweshallbepermittedtotracebacktopersonalcausesmanyotherwiseincomprehensiblescientificerrorsandconceits，andtosumupourverdictagainstHerrDühringinthewords:mentalincompetenceduetomegalomania。
1877:Anti-Duhring——NotesNOTESFromtheMECW[1]Anti-DühringisthetitleunderwhichEngels’classicalworkHerrEugenDühring’sRevolutioninScienceiswidelyknown。
TheattentionofMarxandEngelswasfirstdrawntoDühringwhenhisreviewofVolumeOneofCapitalwaspublishedinErgänzungsblätter，Vol。III，issueNo。3，inDecember1867。TheyexpressedacriticalattitudetowardshiminanumberoflettersofJanuarytoMarch1868。
Inthemid-1870s，DühringexertedquiteasignificantinfluenceonGermanSocial-Democrats。ThesecondeditionofKritischeGeschichtederNationalökonomieunddesSozialismus(November1875)andthepublicationofCursusderPhilosophiealsstrengwissenschaftlicherWeltanschauungundLebensgestaltung(thelastissueappearedinFebruary1875)madehisviewsmorepopular。HismostactivefollowerswereJohannMost，FriedrichWilhelmFritzscheandEduardBernstein。EvenAugustBebelcameundertheinfluenceofDühring’sviewsforashorttime。InMarch1874，twoofBebel’sarticlesaboutDühringpublishedanonymouslyunderthetitle“Einneuer’Communist’“intheVolksstaat，thecentralorganoftheSocial-DemocraticWorkers’Party(Eisenachers)，arousedsharpprotestonthepartofMarxandEngels。
ThespreadofDühring’sviewsmadeLiebknecht，onFebruary1andApril21，1875，proposetoEngelsthattheybecriticisedintheVolksstaat。
EngelscriticisedDühringforthefirsttimeinFebruary1876，inanarticle“PrussianVodkaintheGermanReichstag“，publishedinVolksstaat(seepresentedition，Vol。24)。Later，inhislettertoMarxofMay24，1876，hewritesoftheneedtoinitiateacampaignagainstthespreadofDühring’sviewsinGermany。ReplyingonMay25，MarxsupportedEngels’ideaandsuggestedthat，firstofall，Dühringhimselfbesharplycriticised(seepresentedition，Vol。45)。EngelsbrokeoffhisworkonDialecticsofNature，andbyMay28informedMarxofthegeneralplanandcharacteroftheproposedwork。
EngelsworkedonAnti-Dühringfortwoyears——fromlateMay1876toearlyJuly1878。PartIofthebookwaswrittenmainlybetweenSeptember1876andJanuary1877。ItwaspublishedasaseriesofarticlesentitledHerrnEugenDühring’sUmwälzungderPhilosophieinVorwärtsinJanuary-May1877(Nos。1-7，10and11，January3，5，7，10，12，14，17，24and26;Nos。17，24and25，February9，25
and28;Nos。36and37，March25and28;Nos。44，45，49and50，April15，18，27and29;Nos。55and56，May11and13)。Later，beginningin1878，withthefirstseparateedition，thefirsttwochaptersofthispartweremadeintoanindependentgeneralintroductiontoallthreeparts。
PartIIofthebookwaswrittenmainlybetweenJuneandAugust1877。Thelast，xchapterofthispartwaswrittenbyMarx(seethisvolume，pp。9，15)。Inaddition，inhisletterstoEngelsofMarch7andAugust8，1877，Marxexplainedanumberofeconomicproblems，especiallythoseconnectedwithQuesnay’sTabkauéconomique，whichwasdifficulttounderstand。EngelsalsoreadthewholemanuscriptofAnti-DühringtoMarxbeforesendingittotheprinters。
PartIIwaspublishedunderthetitleHerrnEugenDühring’sUmwälzungderpolitischenOekonomieinWissenschaftlicheBeilageandinthesupplementtoVorwärtsfromJulytoDecember1877
(No。87，July27;Nos。93and96，August10and17;Nos。105and108，September7and14;No。127，October28;Nos。130and139，November4and28;No。
152，December30)。
PartIIIofthebookwaswrittenmainlybetweenAugust1877andApril1878。ItwaspublishedasHerrnEugenDühring’sUmwakungdesSozialismusinthesupplementtoVorwärtsinMaytoJuly1878(Nos。52and61，May5and26;Nos。64and75，June2and28;
No。79，July7)。
ThepublicationofAnti-DühringinVorwärtsarousedstrongresistanceonthepartofDühring’sfollowers。AtthenextcongressoftheSocialistWorkers’PartyofGermany，inGothafromMay27to29，1877，theyattemptedtobanthepublicationofthisworkintheParty’scentralorgan。ItwasduetothemthatAnti-Dühringwasbeingprintedatlengthyintervals。
InJuly1877，PartIofEngels’workwaspublishedinLeipzigasaseparatepamphlet:HerrnEugenDühring’sUmwälzungderWissenschaft。1。Philosophi，。InJuly1878，Parts11andIIIwerealsopublishedasaseparatepamphlet:HerrnEugenDühring’sUmwälzungderWissenschaft。11。PolitischeOekonomie。Sozialismus。
TheentireworkwasfirstpublishedinbookforminLeipzigonaboutJuly8，1878，withaprefacebyEngels:F。Engels，HerrnEugenDühring’sUmwälzungderWissenschaft。Philosophie。PolitischeOekonomie。Sozialismus。ItstitleisanironicalparaphraseofthetitleofDühring’sworkCarey’sUmwälzungderVolkswirtschaftslehreundSocialwissenschaft。AttheendofOctober1878，aftertheAnti-SocialistLawhadbeenputintoforceinGermany，Anti-DühringwasbannedalongwithEngels’otherworks。ItssecondeditionappearedinZurich，in1886。Thethird，revisedandsupplementededitionwaspublishedinStuttgart，in1894，i。e。，aftertheAnti-SocialistLawwasrepealed(1890)。ThiswasthelasteditionduringEngels’lifetime。Thesecondandthirdeditionsborethesametitle。butthesubtitlePhilosophie。PolitischeOekonomie。
Sozialismuswasomitted。
In1880，atPaulLafargue’srequest，EngelsusedthreechaptersofAnti-Dühring(ChapterIoftheIntroductionandchaptersIand11ofPartIII)toprovideaseparatepopularpamphlet，firstpublishedunderthetitleSocialismUtopianandScientific，andlaterasTheDevelopmentofSocialismfromUtopiatoScience(seepresentedition，Vol。24)。
Anti-DühringwaspublishedinEnglishforthefirsttimein1907，inChicagoasF。Engels，LandmarksofScientificSocialism。
Anti-Dühring。TranslatedandeditedbyAustinLewis。Thisworkhasbeenrepeatedlyreprinted。
[2]AtthecongressheldinGothafromMay22to27，1875，thetwotrendsintheGermanworking-classmovement——theSocial-DemocraticWorkers’Party(Eisenachers)，headedbyAugustBebelandWilhelmLiebknecht，andtheLassalleanGeneralAssociationofGermanWorkers——unitedintotheSocialistWorkers’PartyofGermany。
[3]ThereferenceisinparticulartoAugustBebel’sarticle“Einneuer’Communist’“，printedanonymouslyintheVolksstaatonMarch13and20，1874withafavourablereviewofDühring’sbookCursusderNational-undSozialökonomie，einschlieslichderHauptpunktederFinanzbolitikanddescribingDühringasasupporterofscientificsocialism。
[4]ThereferenceistolecturesgiventotheBerlinworkersonthesolutionofsocialproblems，inJuly1876
byMost，whopopularisedDühring’sviews。Theselecturescameoutasaseparatepamphletin1876inBerlin:J。Most，DieLösungdersocialenFrage。Dühring’sviewswerealsoactivelydisseminatedbytheSocial-DemocraticnewspaperBerlinerFreiePresse。
[5]ThisreferstotheprotestlodgedbyMostwiththeeditorsoftheVolksstaat，whodidnotprinthisarticlepraisingDühringandFritzsche’sspeechattheregularcongressoftheSocialistWorkers’PartyofGermanyinAugust1876，demandingthattheParty’scentralorganVolksstaatdisseminateDühring’sideas。
[6]TheSixthWorldIndustrialFairopenedinPhiladelphiaonMay10，1876inconnectionwiththecentenaryofthefoundingoftheUSA(July4，1776)。Reuleaux，directoroftheBerlinIndustrialAcademyappointedbytheGermanGovernmentaschairmanoftheGermanpanelofjudges，hadtoadmitthatGerman-madegoodswerefarinferiortothoseofothercountriesandthatGermanindustry’sguidingprinciplewas“cheapandnasty“。Thisstatementevokedwidecommentinthepress。FromJulytoSeptember，theVolksstaat，forinstance，publishedaseriesofarticlesonthisscandalousfact。
[7]Thephrase“reallyneverlearntaword“，whichgainedwidecurrency，istobefoundinaletterbytheFrenchAdmiraldePanat。ItissometimesascribedtoTalleyrand。Itwasmadewithreferencetotheroyalists，whoprovedincapableofdrawinganylessonsfromtheFrenchRevolutionofthelate18thcentury。
[8]TheAnti-SocialistLawwaspassedbytheGermanReichstagonOctober21，1878，tocounterthesocialistandworking-classmovement。Extendedin1881，1884，1886，1888，itbannedallpartyorganisations，massworkers’organisationsandthesocialistandlabourpress;Social-Democratsweresubjectedtoreprisals。TheSocial-DemocraticParty，withthehelpofMarxandEngels，managed，however，toovercometheopportunist(Hochberg，Bernsteinandothers)and“ultra-Left“(Mostandothers)tendenciesinitsranksand，whilethelawwasinforce，correctlycombinedlegalandillegalworktostrengthenandextenditsinfluenceconsiderablyamongthemasses。ThelawwasabrogatedonOctober1，1890。
Engelsassessesitinthearticle“BismarckandtheGermanWorkingMen’sParty“forTheLabourStandard。
[9]TheHolyAlliance——anassociationofEuropeanmonarchs，foundedin1815byTsaristRussia，AustriaandPrussia，tosuppressrevolutionarymovementsandpreservefeudalmonarchiesinEuropeancountries。
[10]Thismanuscript，towhichMarxhimselfgavethetitleRandnotenzuDühringsKritischeGeschichtederNationalökonomie，waswrittenbeforeMarch5，1877andthensenttoEngels。
ItwasfirstpublishedbytheInstituteofMarxism-Leninism，CCCPSUin:Marx/EngelsGesamiausgabe，F。Engels，HerrnEugenDühring’sUmwälzungderWissenschaft/DialektikderNatur。Sonderausgabe，Moscow-Leningrad，1935，pp。341-71。
[11]DühringattemptedtorefutesomeofEngels’criticismsinthebook:Dühring，KritischeGeschichtederNationalökonomieunddesSozialismus，Dritte，theilweiseumgearbeiteteAuflage，Leipzig，1879，pp。566-67。
[12]InJuly1877，DühringwasdeprivedoftherighttolectureatBerlinUniversityforhissharpcriticismofuniversitypractices。Hisdismissalsparkedoffavociferousprotestcampaignbyhissupportersandwascondemnedbybroaddemocraticcircles。
[13]Initially，theFrenchtranslationwasmadebyLafargue，andpublishedunderthetitleSocialismeutopiqueetsocialismescientifiqueinthejournalRevuesocialiste，Nos。3-5，March-May1880。p。10
[14]TheRussiantranslationwasfirstpublished，asScientificSocialism，intheillegaljournalStudents，No。1，ofDecember1882，aseparatepamphletTheDevelopmentofScientificSocialismwasputoutbytheEmancipationofLabourgroupinGeneva，in1884。
[15]EngelslefthisManchesterbusinessonJuly1，1869andmovedtoLondononSeptember20，1870。
[16]Intheintroductiontohisfundamentalworkonagrochemistry，JustusLiebigspeaksoftheevolutionofhisscientificviewsandnotes:“Chemistryismovingforwardatanincrediblespeed，andthechemistswishingtokeepupwithitareinastateofconstantmoulting。
Oneshedsone’soldfeathers，nolongersuitableforflight，butnewonesgrowintheirsteadandonefliesallthebetter。”See1。Liebig，DieChemieinibrerAnwendungaufAgriculturundPhysiologiz，7。Aufl。，Braunschweig，1862，Th。I，p。26。
[17]ThisreferstotheletterwrittenbytheGermanSocial-DemocratHeinrichWilhelmFabiantoMarxonNovember6，1880(EngelsdescribedFabianinhisletterstoKautskyofApril11，1884，toBernsteinofSeptember13，1884，andtoSorgeofJune3，1885。
SeeMECW，Vol。47)。
[18]Marx’s1，000-oddsheetsofmathematicalmanuscriptswerewrittenmainlyinthe1860s，1870sandearly1880s。ThemostcompletetextsofthesemanuscriptsandtheabstractsandexcerptsofMarx’sownnoteswerefirstpublishedbytheInstituteofMarxism-LeninisminthelanguageoftheoriginalandtranslatedintoRussianinK。Marx，MathematicalManuscripts，Moscow，1968。
[19]AreferencetotheworksoftheIrishphysicistThomasAndrews(1869)，theFrenchphysicistLouisPaulCailletetandtheSwissphysicistRaoulPierrePictet(1877)。
[20]AccordingtothetheoryexpoundedbyRudolfVirchowinDieCelluhrpathologie，firstpublishedin1858，theindividualanimalbreaksupintotissue，thetissueintocell-states，andthecell-statesintocells，sothat，inthefinalanalysis，theindividualanimalisamechanicalsumofseparatecells。
Speakingofthe“progressive“natureofthistheory，EngelsalludestoVirrhow’smembershiDoftheGermanbourgeoisPartyofProgress，organisedinJune1861。p。I}
[21]ThisreferstoRousseau’stheoryofequality(seethisvolume，p。129)expoundedinhisDiscourssurl’origineetlesfondemensdel’inégalitéparmileshommes，Amsterdam，1755，andDucontratsocial;ou，Principesdudroitpolitique，Amsterdam，1762。
[22]TheReformation(16thcentury)——
abroadsocio-politicalandideologicalmovementofacomplexsocialcontentandcomposition。ItassumedareligiousformofstruggleagainsttheCatholicdoctrineandChurchandwasbasicallyanti-feudalincharacter;
itspreadovermostofWesternandCentralEurope。
ThePeasantWarof1524-26——thebiggestinsurrectionofGermanpeasants(supportedbytownspeople)againstthefeudalyokeinSouth-westernandMiddleGermany。
TheLevelers——the“trueLevellers“or“Diggers“——representativesoftheultra-LefttrendduringtheEnglishbourgeoisrevolutionofthemid-17thcentury，consistingofthepoorestsectionsofthepopulation，sufferingfromfeudalandcapitalistexploitationintownandcountryside。
[23]Engelshasinmind，firstofall，theworksofThomasMore(Utopiapublishedin1516)andTommasoCampanella(CityoftheSun，publishedin1623)。
[24]DenisDiderot’sdiscourseLeneveudeRameauwaswritteninabout1762andsubsequentlyrevisedtwicebytheauthor。Itwasfirstpublished，inGoethe’sGermantranslation，inLeipzigin1805;inFrenchinOeuveresinéditesdeDiderot，Paris，1821，putout，infact，in1823。
[25]TheAlexandrianperiod(theAlexandrianculture，theAlexandrianage)derivesitsnamefromtheEgyptiancityofAlexandria，whichwasamajorcentreofHellenicculture。Alexandria，towhichcitythousandsofGreeksmovedinthe3rdcenturyB。C。，witnessedarapidadvanceofmathematics，mechanics(EuclidArchimedes)，geography，astronomy，physiologyandothersciences。
[26]Laplace’shypothesisoftheoriginofthesolarsystemwasfirstexpoundedinthelastchapterofhistreatiseExpositiondusystémedumonde，T。I-II，Paris，4thyearoftheFrenchRepublic{1796}。Inthelast，sixtheditionofthisbook，preparedduringLaplace’slifetimeandpublishedposthumously，in1835，thehypothesisisexpoundedinthelast，seventhnote。
Theexistenceofincandescentmassesofgaswasprovedin1864
bytheEnglishastronomerWilliamHuggins，whomadewidespreaduseofthemethodofspectralanalysis(evolvedin1859byGustavKirchhoffandRobertBunsen)inastronomy。HereEngelsusedA。Secchi’sDieSonne，Braunschweig，1872，pp。787，789-90。
[27]InthefirstGermaneditionofDieEntwicklungdesSozialismusvonderUtopiezurWissenschaft(1882)，Engelsintroducedfundamentalspecification，whichwasrepeatedintheauthorisedEnglishedition(1892)。Heformulatedthegivenpropositioninthefollowingwords:“……allpasthistory，withtheexceptionofitsprimitivestages，wasthehistoryofclassstruggles……”
[28]Dühring’sworks，quotedbyEngels，arereferredtoinbracketsinabbreviatedforminthefollowingway:
D。Ph。standsfor:Dühring，CursusderPhilosophie，Leipzig，1875
D。K。G。standsfor:Dühring，KritischeGeschichtederNationalökonomieunddesSozialismus，2。Aufl。，Berlin，1875;
D。C。standsfor:Dühring，CursusderNational-undSocialökonomie，2。Aufl。，Leipzig，1876，andtherelevantpages。
[29]Phalansteries——thebuildingsinwhich，accordingtotheFrenchutopiansocialistCharlesFourier，themembersofphalanges，idealharmoniouscommunities，wouldliveandwork。
[30]G。W。F。Hegel’sEncyclopädiederphilosophischenWissenschaftenimGrundrisse，Heidelberg，1817
consistsofthreeparts:1)logic，2)philosophyofnature，3)philosophyofthemind。
InhisworkonAnti-DühringandDialecticsofNature，EngelsusedHegel’swritingsprimarilypublishedafterHegel’sdeathbyhispupilsin:G。W。F。Hegel，Werke。VollständigeAusgabedurcheinenVereinvonFreundendesVerewigten:Ph。Marheineke，J。Schulze，Ed。Gans，Lp。v。Henning，H。Hotho，C。Michekt，F。Förster，Bd。I-XVIII，Berlin，1832-1845。
[31]EngelsispresumablyalludingtoDieEpiphaniederewigenPersönlichkeitdesCeistes(publishedinseparateinstallmentsin1844，1847and1852)，theworkoftheHegelianphilosopherK。L。Michelet，whopublishedtheworksofhisteacher。
[32]Engelsmadeanotehere，whichhesubsequentlyincludedinDialecticsofNature。
[33]Intheoriginal，hereandelsewhere，theterm“Ideologie“isused，asarule，asasynonymfor“idealism“。
[34]ThisisanallusiontotheservilesubmissivenessofthePrussians，whoacceptedtheConstitutiongrantedbyKingFrederickWilliamIVonDecember5，1848，whenthePrussianConstituentAssemblywasdissolved。TheConstitutiondrawnupwiththeparticipationoftheMinisteroftheInterior，BaronManteuffel，wasfinallyapprovedbyFrederickWilliamIVonJanuary31，1850，afternumerousamendmentshadbeenintroduced。
[35]InPartIofAnti-Dühring，allpagereferencesmadebyEngelsaretoDühring’sCursusderPhilosophie。
[36]EngelsenumeratesanumberofmajorbattlesinEuropeanwarsofthenineteenthcentury。
ThebattleofAusterlitz(nowSlavkovinCzechoslovakia)>Transferinterrupted！nIdefeatedacombinedRusso-Austrianarmy。
ThebattleofJena，October14，1806，inwhichNapoleonIcrushedthePrussianarmy。
ThebattleofKöniggrätz(nowHradecKralove)，orofSadowa，July3，1866，inBohemia，inwhichPrussianforcesdefeatedthearmyofAustriaandSaxony，therebysecuringPrussia’svictoryoverAustriainthewarof1866。
ThebattleofSedan，September1-2，1870，inwhichPrussianforcesdefeated-theFrencharmyunderMacMahonandcompelledittosurrender。
ThiswasthedecisivebattleintheFranco-Prussianwarof1870-71。
[37]AreferencetotheresearchcarriedoutbytheGermanmathematicianKarlFriedrichGaussintonon-Euclideangeometry。
[37a]Intheoriginalaplayonwords:Eslesbrücke(asses’bridge)meansinGermanalsoanunauthorisedaidinstudyusedbydull-headedorlazystudents;acriborpony。
[38]In1886，inhisLudwigFeuerbachandtheEndofClassicalGermanPhilosophy，EngelswrotethefollowingontheCopernicansystem:“ForthreehundredyearstheCopernicansolarsystemwasahypothesiswithahundred，athousandortenthousandchancestooneinitsfavour，butstillalwaysahypothesis。ButwhenLeverrier，bymeansofthedataprovidedbythissystem，notonlydeducedthenecessityoftheexistenceofanunknownplanet，butalsocalculatedthepositionintheheavenswhichthisplanetmustnecessarilyoccupy，andwhenGallereallyfoundthisplanet，theCopernicansystemwasproved“。TheplanetmentionedinthequotationisNeptune，whichwasdiscoveredin1846byJohannGalleoftheBerlinObservatory。
[39]Engelsmadeanotehere，whichhesubsequentlyincludedinDialecticsofNature(seeMECW，volume25，pp。530-34)。
[40]Protista(fromtheGreekprotistos——meaningfirst)are，accordingtoHaeckel’sclassification，avastgroupofsimple，bothunicellularandnon-cellular，organisms。
Monera(fromtheGreekmoneres——meaningsingle)
are，accordingtoHaeckel，structurelessmassesofalbumen，devoidofanucleusbutperformingalltheessentialvitalfunctions:eating，locomotion，reactiontoirritation，multiplication。
ThetermsprotistaandmonerawereintroducedbyHaeckelin1866inhisbookGenerelleMorphologiederOrganismen。
[41]ThereferenceistotheSumerianepicofGilgameshandtheAccadianversionoftheDelugestorydiscoveredin1872byGeorgeSmith，theEnglishAssyriologistandarchaeologist。
[42]RingoftheNibelung——RichardWagner’smonumentaltetralogy:Rheingold，Valkyrie，SiegfriedandGötterdämmerung。
HereEngelsjokinglycallsDühringthe“composerofthefuture“，referringtotheterm“composition“proposedbyDühring。Wagner’sadversarieshadironicallycalledhismusicthe“musicofthefuture“，theoccasionbeingWagner’sbookDasKunstwerkderZukunft，Leipzig，1850。
[43]Zoophytes——anamewhich，fromthesixteenthcenturyonwards，designatedagroupofinvertebrates(mainlyspongesandcoelenterata)。Fromthemid-nineteenthcentury，thetermzoophyteswasusedasasynonymforcoelenterata;ithasnowdroppedoutofuse。
[44]ThisclassificationwasgiveninHuxley’sLecturesontheElementsofComparativeAnatomy，London，1864，LectureV。ItprovidedthebasisforH。A。Nicholson’sManualofZoology(firstpublishedin1870)，whichEngelsusedinhisworkonAnti-DühringandDialecticsofNature。
[45]Traube’sartificialcells——inorganicformationsrepresentingamodeloflivingcells;theywerecreatedbytheGermanchemistandphysiologistMoritzTraubebymixingcolloidalsolutions。Hereadapaperonhisexperimentstothe47thCongressofGermanNaturalistsandPhysiciansinBreslau，onSeptember231874。
MarxandEngelsthoughthighlyofTraube’sdiscovery(seeMarx’slettertoPyotrLavrovofJune18，1875，andtoWilhelmAlexanderFreundofJanuary21，1877，MECW，Vol。45)。
[46]HereEngelsrelatesareportinthejournalNatureofNovember16，1876dealingwiththepaperreadbyDmitryMendeleyevonSeptember3，1876atthe5thCongressofRussianNaturalistsandPhysiciansinWarsaw。Mendeleyevreportedontheresultsofhisexperiments，conductedjointlywithJozefJerzyBoguskiin1875-76，toverifytheBoyle-Mariottelaw。
EngelsevidentlywrotethisnotewhencheckingtheproofofthischapterofAnti-Dühring，whichwasprintedinVorwärtsonFebruary28，1877。Engelsaddedtheendofthenote，giveninparentheses，in1885，whenhewaspreparingthesecondeditionofAnti-Dühring。
[47]Rousseau’sDiscourssurl’origineetlesfondemensdel’inégalitéparmileshommeswaswrittenin1754andpublishedin1755。
[48]TheThirtyYears’War(1618-48)——
anall-EuropeanwarcausedbythestrugglebetweenProtestantsandCatholics。
Germanybecamethemainarenaofthiswar，andconsequentlytheobjectofmilitarypillageandthepredatoryclaimsofthebelligerents。
[49]ThisreferstoStirner’sDerEinzigeundseinEigenthum，Leipzig，1845;forcriticismofitseeTheGermanIdeologybyMarxandEngels。
[50]Engels’mainsourceofdataontheseeventswas，evidently，theAmericandiplomatEugeneSchuyler’sTurkistan。
NotesofaJourneyinRussianTurkistan，Khokand，Buthara，andKuldja，intwovolumes，Vol。II，London，1876，pp。356-59。
[51]TheAmericanConstitutionof1787，officiallyproclaimingtheUSAafederalrepublic，wasthemostprogressivebourgeoisconstitutionofitstime。Yetitvirtuallylegalisedslavery。Marxwroteonthis:“TheConstitution……recognisesslavesaspropertyandobligestheUniongovernmenttoprotectthisproperty“(seeMECW，Vol。19，p。36)。
[52]KarlMarx，DasKapital，Bd。
1，2。Aufl。，Hamburg，1872，p。36(Part1，Chapter1，Section3，A，3:
TheEquivalentFormofValue)。
InAnti-Dühring，Engelsquotesfromthe2ndGermaneditionofVol。IofCapital。Heusedthe3rdGermaneditionofCapital，Vol。IonlywhenherevisedPartII，Chapterxforthe3rdeditionofAnti-Dühring。
[53]LassallewasarrestedinFebruary1848onachargeofincitingtostealacash-boxwithdocumentstobeusedinthedivorcecaseofCountessSophieHatzfeldt，whoselawyerhewasfrom1846to1854。Lassalle’strialtookplacefromAugust5to11，1848;hewasacquittedbyajury。
[54]Codepénal——theFrenchPenalCode，adoptedin1810，whichcameintoforceinFranceandFrench-conqueredregionsofWesternandSouth-westernGermanyin1811;
alongwiththeCivilCode，itremainedinforceintheRhineProvinceafterithadbeenannexedbyPrussiain1815。
[55]CodeNapoléon——theFrenchCivilCodewasadoptedin1804。Engelscalledit“aclassicallegalcodeofbourgeoissociety“inhisLudwigFeuerbachandtheEndofClassicalGermanPhilosophy(seeMECW，Vol。26)。
HereEngelsisspeakingofitinthebroadsense，havinginmindthefivecodesadoptedunderNapoleonfrom1804to1810:civil，civil-procedure，trade，criminalandcriminal-procedure。
[56]InEthicaordinegeometricodemonstrataetinquinqueparsesdistincta(firstpublishedinAmsterdamin1677)，Part1，Addendum，Spinozasaidthatignoranceisnoargument，inoppositiontotheclerical-teleologicalviewthateverythingisdeterminedby“divineProvidence“asthefinalcauseandthattheonlymeansofargumentationisthepleaofignoranceofothercauses。
[57]Corpusjuriscivilis——codeofcivillawsregulatingpropertyrelationsinRomanslave-owningsociety;
itwasdrawnupfrom528to534undertheByzantineEmperorJustinian。
InLudwigFeuerbachandtheEndofClassicalGermanPhilosophy，Engelsdescribeditasthe“firstworldlawofacommodity-producingsociety“
(seeMECW，Vol。26)。
[58]Thelawonthecompulsorycivilregistrationofbirths，marriagesanddeathswaspassedinPrussiaonOctober1，1874andasimilaroneforthewholeGermanEmpireonFebruary6，1875。
ThelawdeprivedtheChurchoftherighttosuchregistration，therebyconsiderablycurtailingitsinfluenceandincome。ItwasdirectedprimarilyagainsttheCatholicChurch。
[59]ThereferenceistotheprovincesofBrandenburg，EastPrussia，WestPrussia，Posen，PomeraniaandSilesia，whichwerepartoftheKingdomofPrussiauntiltheViennaCongressof1815。
[60]Personalequation——acorrectionmadeforvariationinastronomicalobservationduetoaperson’sindividualpeculiarities。
[61]DühringdrewthesedataonthestructureofMarx’sCapitalfromthePrefacetothefirstGermanedition(seepresentedition，Vol。35)。From1867onwards，whenVol。I
ofCapitalwaspublished，Marx’splanwastohavetheentireworkbroughtoutinthreevolumesinfourbooks，the2ndandthe3rdofwhichweretocompriseVol。II。AfterMarx’sdeath，Engelspublishedthe2ndand3rdbooksasvols。IIandIII。Thelast，fourthbook，TheoriesofSurplus-Value，waspublishedafterEngels’death。
[62]ChapterXXIVofVol。IofCapital——“TheSo-calledPrimitiveAccumulation“——takesuppp。742-93ofthe1872Germanedition。Thelast，seventhparagraphofthischapter——
“HistoricalTendencyofCapitalistAccumulation“——beginsonp。791ofthatedition。
[63]ThereferenceistoRousseau’sDiscourssurl’origineetlesfondemensdel’inégalité’parmileshommes，writtenin1754。Below，Engelsquotesthesecondpartofthiswork(1755edition，pp。116，118，146，175-76and176-77)。
[64]TheexpressiondeterminatioestnegatioistobefoundinSpinoza’slettertoJarighJellesofJune2，1674(seeB。Spinoza，EpistolaedoctorumquorundamvirorumadB。
deSpinozaetauctorisresponsiones……，Letter50)，whereitisusedinthesenseof“determinationisanegation“。Theexpressionomnisdeterminatioestnegatioanditsinterpretationas“everydeterminationisanegation“aretobefoundinHegel’sworks，fromwhichtheyhavebecomewidelyknown(seeG。W。F。Hegel，EncyclopadiederphilosophischenWissenschaften，ErsterTeil，§91，ZusatzDieWissenschaftderLogik，ErstesBuch，ErsterAbschnitt，ZweitesKapitei:“b。Qualitat“;VorlesungenuberdieGeschichtedkrPhilosophie，ErsterTeil，ErsterAbschnitt，ErstesKapitel，ParagraphuberParmenides)。
[65]Engelshasinmind，aboveall，Marx’sworksThePovertyofPhilosophy(1847)，AContributiontotheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy(1859)andVol。IofCapital(1867)。
Marxcarriedoutathoroughstudyofpre-capitalistformsofproductioninhisEconomicManuscriptsof1857-58(firstversionofCapital)。
[66]InPartII，exceptChapterX，ofAnti-Dühring，Engelsquotesfromthesecond(1876)editionofDühring’sCursusderNational-undSocialökonomie。
[67]Reptiles——anicknamewidespreadinGermanyinthe1870sforjournalistssubsidisedbythegovernment。Thisexpression，butinadifferentsense，wasusedbyBismarckonJanuary30，1869，inthePrussianChamberofDeputies，thistimewithreferencetothegovernment’sadversaries。
[68]EngelsisreferringtotheJulyRevolutionof1830inFrance，whichbroughtbigbankersandindustrialiststopower;fromthistimeon，asaresultofthefinalvictoryofthebourgeoisieoverthenobility，thestrugglebetweentheproletariatandthebourgeoisiecametothefore。
[69]TheRestoration——thesecondruleoftheBourbondynastyinFrance(1814-15，1815-30)，overthrownbytheRevolutionattheendofthe18thcentury。ItwasbroughttoanendbytheJulyRevolutionof1830。
[70]EngelstookthesefactsfromW。
Wachsmuth’sHelknischeAlterthumskundeausdemGesichtspunktedesStaates，Th。II，Abth。I，Halle，1829。
ThesourceforthenumberofslavesinCorinthandAeginaduringtheGreco-Persianwars(5thcent。B。C。)，isBanquetofSophists，BookVI，bytheancientGreekwriterAthenaeus。
[71]Thisreferstoabsolutemonarchy(absolutism)——aformofstateinthelastperiodoftheexistenceoffeudalism。
[72]ThereferenceistothegunsproducedbyKrupps，thebiggestGermansteelfirm，andriflesdesignedandproducedbytheGermanengineersandentrepreneurs，theMauserbrothers。
[73]Engelsmeanstheprotractedeconomiccrisisof1873-79inGermanindustry，inspiteoftheseizureofAlsaceandEastLorraineandthe5，000millionfrancsofwarindemnitiesthatFrancepaidtoGermanyunderthetermsoftheFrankfurtpeacetreaty(1871)，afterherdefeatintheFranco-Prussianwarof1870-71。
[74]TheWarofIndependenceinNorthAmerica(1775-83)wasthefirstbourgeoisrevolutionontheAmericancontinent。
[75]Areferencetothebourgeois-democraticrevolutioninFranceattheendofthe18thcentury。
[76]ThePrussianLandwehrsystemprovidedfortheformationofarmyunitsfromamongpeopleoftheolderagegroupswhowereliabletomilitaryserviceandhadservedintheregulararmyandbeeninthereservefortheestablishedperiod。TheLandwehrfirstappearedinPrussiain1813-14asapeople’smilitiatocombatNapoleon。
[77]ThereferenceistotheAustro-Prussianwarof1866。
[78]InthebattleofSaint-Privat，orofCravelotte，August18，1870，theGermantroopsdefeatedtheFrenchRhenisharmyatthecostofenormouslosses。
[79]TheCrimeanwar(1853-56)
betweenRussiaandacoalitionofBritain，France，TurkeyandSardinia，brokeoutasaresultofaclashoftheireconomicandpoliticalinterestsintheMiddleEast。
[80]ThereferenceistothegunsproducedbyKrupps，thebiggestGermansteelfirm，andriflesdesignedandproducedbytheGermanengineersandentrepreneurs，theMauserbrothers。
[81]ThephraseinparentheseswasaddedbyEngelsinthethirdeditionofAnti-Dühring。
[82]Dühringcalledhis“dialectics“
“naturaldialectics“todistinguishitfromHegel’s“unnatural“dialectics。
SeeE。Dühring，NaturlicheDialektik。NeuelogischeGrundlegungenderWissenschaftundPhilosophie，Berlin，1865，p。13。
[83]Dealingwithacommonsubject，theworksofGeorgLudwigMaurer(12volumes)studytheagrarian，urbanandstatesystemofmediaevalGermany。Theseworksare:EinleitungzurGeschichtederMark-，Hof-，Dorf-undStadtVerfassungundderöffentlichenGewalt，Munchen，1854;GeschichtederMarkenverfassunginDeutschland，Erlangen，1856;GeschichtederFronhöfe，derBauernhöfeundderHofverfassunginDeutschland，Bd。I-IV，Erlangen，1862-63;GeschichtederDorfverfassunginDeutschland，Bd。1-11，Erlangen，1865-66;GeschichtederStädteverfassunginDeutschechlandBd。I-IV，Erlangen，1869-71。Thefirst，secondandfourthoftheseworksaredevotedtoastudyoftheGermanmarksystem。
[84]EngelsironicallychangesthetitleofHeinrichLXXII——oneofthetwoinfluentialReussprincesoftheYoungerbranch(Reuss-Lobenstein-Ebersdorf)。Greiz——capitaloftheReussprincipality(Elderbranch，Reuss-Greece)。Schleiz——adomainoftheReussprinces(Youngerbranch，Reuss-Schleiz)——wasnotapossessionofHeinrichLXXII。
[85]ThisisanexpressionfromFrederickWilliamIV’sNewYearmessageJanuary1，1849)tothePrussianArmy。ForacriticalassessmentofthismessageseeMarx’sarticle“ANew-YearGreeting“
(MECW，Vol。8，pp。222-26)。
[86]ThereferenceistothelawsonmaximumpricesadoptedbytherevolutionarygovernmentduringtheWarofIndependenceinNorthAmericaandtheNationalConventionduringtheFrenchRevolution。
[87]AdetailedcriticismoftheLassalleansloganof“full“orunlimited“proceedsoflabour“isgiveninSection1ofMarx’sCritiqueoftheGothaProgramme。
[88]MarxintendedtoincludethethirdbookinVol。IIofCapital。
[89]AccordingtoaBiblicalstory，whenJerichowasbesiegedbytheIsraelitesunderJoshua，itsimpregnablewallscametumblingdownatthesoundofholytrumpetsandtheshoutsofthebesiegers(Joshua6:1-4，9，19)。
[90]ThisisanallusiontoKingFrederickWilhelmIV’sspeechfromthethroneattheopeningoftheUnitedDietinPrussiaonApril11，1847，inwhichhestatedthathewouldneverallow“thenaturalrelationsbetweenthemonarchandthepeople“tobeturnedinto“conventional，constitutionalones“and“theusedupsheetofpaper“
taketheplaceof“primordialholyloyalty“。
[91]EngelsenumeratesanumberofmajorbattlesinEuropeanwarsofthenineteenthcentury。
ThebattleofAusterlitz(nowSlavkovinCzechoslovakia)，December2，1805，;inwhichNapoleonIdefeatedacombinedRusso-Austrianarmy。
ThebattleofJena，October14，1806，inwhichNapoleonIcrushedthePrussianarmy。
ThebattleofKöniggrätz(nowHradecKralove)，orofSadowa，July3，1866，inBohemia，inwhichPrussianforcesdefeatedthearmyofAustriaandSaxony，therebysecuringPrussia’svictoryoverAustriainthewarof1866。
ThebattleofSedan，September1-2，1870，inwhichPrussianforcesdefeated-theFrencharmyunderMacMahonandcompelledittosurrender。
ThiswasthedecisivebattleintheFranco-Prussianwarof1870-71。
[92]Thischapter，basedonMarx’smanuscriptof1877wasevidentlyeditedbyEngelsinthesecondhalfofMay1894，whilehewaspreparingthethirdGermaneditionofAnti-Dühring。ThatiswhythischaptercontainsareferencetothethirdGermaneditionofMarx’sCapital(1883)。EngelsrestoredMarx’soriginaltextasfullyaspossible。ThemainobjectofMarx’scriticismherewasthesecondeditionofDühring’sKritischeGeschichtederNationalökonomieunddesSozialismus，inwhichtheauthorattemptedtodescribethehistoryofpoliticaleconomyandinwhichMarx’steachingwastheobjectofhislibellousattacks。
[93]Mercantilism——aschoolofbourgeoispoliticaleconomy，thatemergedinthelastthirdofthefifteenthcentury;itexpressedtheinterestsofthemerchantbourgeoisieintheageoftheprimitiveaccumulationofcapital，identifiedthewealthofthecountrywiththeaccumulationofmoneyandattachedprimaryimportanceinthistothestate。Marxcalledtheearlyperiodofmercantilismthemonetarysystem(seeMECW，Vol。36)。
[94]WilliamPetty’sQuantulumcunqueconcerningMoneywaswrittenin1682intheformofanaddresstoLordHalifaxandpublishedinLondonin1695。Marxusedthe1760edition。
Petty’sThePoliticalanatomyofIrelandwaswrittenin1672andpublishedinLondonin1691。
[95]ThereferencehereistotheFrenchchemistA。L。Lavoisier’s“DelarichesseterritorialeduroyaumedeFrance“
and“EssaisurlapopulationdelavilledeParis，surlarichesseetsesconsommations“，aswellasthejointwork“Essaid’arithmétiquepolitique“，writtenbyLavoisierandtheFrenchmathematicianLagrangepublishedinMélangesd’économiepolitique。Précédésdenoticeshistoriquessurchaqueauteur，etaccompagnésdecommentairesetdenotesexplicatives，parMME。DaireetG。
deMolinari，Vol。1，Paris，1847，pp。575-620。
[96]EngelsisreferringheretotheattemptbyJohnLaw，aScottisheconomist，toputpapermoneyintocirculationinFrance，wherehisideareceivedsupportincourtquarters。In1716hefoundedaprivatebank，theBanquegeneralewhich，in1718，wasreorganisedintothestateBanqueroyale。Theunlimitedissueofbank-notesbyLaw’sbankwasaccompaniedbythewithdrawalofcoinsfromcirculation。Asaresult，StockExchangespeculationreachedanunprecedentedscaleandculminated，in1720，inthebankruptcyofthebankandoftheLawsystemitself。
[97]Aninaccuracyinthetext:thefirsteditionofRichardCantillon’sEssaisurlanatureducommerceengénéralappearednotin1752，butin1755，asMarxhimselfpointedoutinCapital，Vol。I(PartVI，ChapterXXI)。AdamSmithmentionsCantillon’sworkinVolumeIofhisAnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations，ChapterVIII，OftheWagesofLabour。
[98]In1866，actingthroughhisadviserHermannWagener，BismarckrequestedDühringtodrawupamemorandumforthePrussiangovernmentonthelabourquestion。Dühring，whoadvocatedharmonybetweencapitalandlabour，compliedwiththisrequest。Hisworkwaspublished，however，withouthisknowledge，firstanonymously，andlaterunderthesignatureofWagener。ThisgaveDühringgroundsforinitiatingproceedingsagainstWageneronachargeofbreakingcopyrightlaws。In1868，Dühringwonhiscase。Attheheightofthisscandaloustrial，DühringpublishedDieSchicksalemeinersocialenDenkschriftfürdasPreussischeStaatsministerium。
[99]Livretournois——aFrenchcoinnamedafterthetownofTour;from1740onwardsitwasequaltoonefranc;in1799，itwasreplacedbythefranc。
[100]EngelsisreferringtothebeginningofChapterIofthe“Introduction“。HewrotethisfootnotewhenAnti-Dühringwaspublishedinthenewspaper。ItremainedunchangedinalleditionsofthebookpublishedduringEngels’lifetime。Inallsubsequentseparateeditions，thefirsttwochapterswerejoinedtogetherundertheheading“Introduction“。Thenumbersoftheotherchapterswerenotchanged，so“Philosophy“nowbeginswithChapterIII。
[101]TheReignofTerror——
theperiodofJacobinrevolutionary-democraticdictatorship(June1793-July1794)，whichreliedontherevolutionaryblocoftheurbanpettyandmiddlebourgeoisie，themajorityofthepeasantsandplebeians。
TheDirectorate——theorganofexecutivepowerinFrance(fromNovember1795)，formedunderthe1795Constitution。ExistinguntiltheNapoleon’scoupd’étatofNovember9(18Brumaire)，1799
itupheldtheinterestsofbigbourgeoisieandbrutallysuppressedtherevolutionaryactionsofthepopularmasses。
In1804，Bonaparte，whoactuallybecametheheadofthestateundertheConsulateafter18Brumaire，wasproclaimedEmperoroftheFrench。
[102]Areferencetotheslogan“Liberty，Equality，Fraternity“currentduringtheFrenchRevolution。
[103]Saint-Simon’sfirstwork，Lettresd’unhabitantdeGenèveàsescontemporainswaswritteninGenevain1802andpublishedanonymouslyinParisin1803，withouttheplaceanddateofpublicationbeingindicated。WhenworkingonAnti-Dühring，Engelsmadeuseof:G。Hubbard，Saint-Simon。Savieetsestravaux。
SuividefragmentsdespluscélèbresécritsdeSaint-Simon，Paris，1857。ThiseditioncontainsinaccuraciesregardingthepublicationdatesofvariousworksbySaint-Simon。
ThefirstmostimportantworkofCharlesFourierwasThéoriedesquatremouvementsetdesdestinéesgénérales，writtenintheearlynineteenthcenturyandpublishedanonymouslyinLyonsin1808(thetitlepagegivesLeipzigastheplaceofpublication)。
[104]Thealliedarmiesofthesixthanti-Frenchcoalition(Russia，Austria，Britain，Prussiaandothercountries)
enteredParisonMarch31，1814。Napoleon’sempirefellandNapoleonhimself，afterabdicating，wasbanishedtotheIslandofElba。TheBourbonmonarchywasrestoredinFranceforthefirsttime(1814-15)。
[105]TheHundredDays——theperiodofbriefrestorationoftheNapoleonicEmpire——fromthedayofNapoleon’sreturnfromexileonElbatoParisonMarch20，1815，untilhissecondabdicationonJune22ofthesameyear，afterhisarmy’sdefeatatWaterlooonJune18，1815byAnglo-DutchforcesunderWellingtonandbythePrussianarmyunderBlucher。
[106]AfterDühringhadbeendeprivedoftherighttolectureatBerlinUniversityforcriticisinguniversitypracticesandattackingsuchprominentscientistsasHelmholtz，Virchowandothers，ajustcampaign，inthecolumnsoftheSocial-Democraticpressincluded，grewintoanunrestrainedapologiaforDühring，owingtotheeffortsofhissupporters。ThisiswhatEngelsishintingat。Dühring’sattacksontheGermanSocial-Democratsinreactionarynewspapers，intheautumnofthesameyearled，however，toafallinhisauthorityandinfluencenotonlyamongsocialists，butalsoamongpeopleofprogressiveviewsingeneral。
[107]ThisideahadbeenenunciatedinCharlesFourier’sfirstbook——Théoriedesquatremouvements——whichcontainsthefollowinggeneralthesis:“Socialprogressandchangesofaperiodareaccompaniedbytheprogressofwomentowardsfreedom，whilethedecayofthesocialsystembringswithitareductionofthefreedomsenjoyedbywomen。”Fourierconcludes:“Extensionoftherightsofwomenisthebasicprincipleofallsocialprogress“(Fourier，Oeuvrescomplètes，t。I，Paris，1841，pp。195-96)。p。248
[108]InanotetotherelevantpassageinSocialismUtopianandScientific，Engelsgivesthesourceofthelastthreequotations:R。Owen，TheRevolutionintheMindandPracticeoftheHumanRace;or，theComingChangefromIrrationalitytoRationality，London，1849，pp。21，22。ThefactsfromOwen’sbiographymentionedabovearefromthesamesource。
[109]TheBillmovedonOwen’sinitiativeinJune1815，waspassedbyParliamentonlyinJuly1819，havingbeengreatlycurtailed。TheActregulatinglabourincottonmillsbannedtheemploymentofchildrenundertheageofnine，limitedtheworkingdayto12hoursforyoungpeopleunder18andestablishedforallworkerstwobreaks，oneforbreakfastandtheotherforlunch。withatotaldurationofoneandahalfhours。
[110]ACongressofCo-operativeSocietiesandTradesUnions，presidedoverbyOwen，washeldinLondoninOctober1833。ThisCongressformallyfoundedtheGrandNationalConsolidatedTradesUnion，theCharterofwhichwasadoptedinFebruary1834。ItwasOwen’sintentionthatthisUnionwouldtakeoverthemanagementofproductionandremakesocietypeacefully。Thisutopianplancollapsedverysoon。Inthefaceofstrongoppositionfromemployersandthestate，theUnionceasedtoexistin1834。
[111]EquitableLabourExchangeBazaarswerefoundedbyworkers’co-operativesinvarioustownsofEngland;thefirstofthesebazaarswasfoundedbyOweninLondoninSeptember1832
andexisteduntilmid-1834。
[112]ThereferenceistoProudhon’sideaoforganisinganexchangebank，firstputforwardinhispamphletOrganisationduCréditetdelaCirculationetSolutionduproblèmesociale，whichwaspublishedinearlyApril1848。Thisideawasdevelopedindetailinhisotherworks。Proudhon’smainideawastoreplacegoldandsilverasameansofcirculation，withbank-notes，whichwere，infact，impersonalbills。Thesebank-notesoftheexchangebankweresecuredbyproductsoflabourand，inthis，accordingtoProudhon，laytheirprincipaldifferencefromotherpapermoneyissuedbybanksandsecuredbypreciousmetals，landedproperty，etc。
Toputthisideaintopractice，theBanquedupeuplewasfoundedinParisonJanuary31，1849。Itwentbankrupt，however，andclosedinearlyApril1849。
[113]Harmon，Hall——
thenameofthecommunistcommunityfoundedbyEnglishutopiansocialists，ledbyOwen，atthecloseof1839inQueenwood，Hampshire，England。Itexisteduntil1845。
[114]InSocialismUtopianandScientific，EngelsgivesanotereferringtohisworkTheMark(seeMECW，Vol。24)。
[115]ThisreferstothewarsbetweenthemajorEuropeanpowersintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturiesforcontroloftradewithIndiaandAmericaandforseizureofcolonialmarkets。
TheprincipalrivalswereinitiallyEnglandandHolland，laterEnglandandFrance。Englandwonthesewarsand，towardsthecloseoftheeighteenthcentury，almostallworldtradewasconcentratedinherhands。
[116]ThereferenceistothePrussianRoyalMaritimeCompany，whichwasfoundedasacommercialandbankingcompanyin1772andgrantedanumberofimportantprivilegesbythestate。Itadvancedbigloanstothegovernmentand，infact，becameitsbankerandbroker。
[117]Theslogan“afreepeople’sstate“——iscriticisedinsectionIVofMarx’sCritiqueoftheGothaProgramme，Engels’lettertoAugustBebelofMarch18-28，1875，andLenin’sTheStateandRevolution，Chapter1，Paragraph4，andChapterIV，Paragraph3(CollectedWorksVol。25，pp。395-401and439-42)。
[118]ThesefiguresarefromRobertGiffen’spaper“RecentAccumulationsofCapitalintheUnitedKingdom“，readattheStatisticalSocietyonJanuary15，1878andprintedintheLondonJournaloftheStatisticalSocietyinMarch1878。
[119]Speakingaboutthe“GermanEmpireofthePrussiannation“，Engelsunderlines，ontheonehand，thatthecountry’sunificationunderPrussiansupremacywascompletedbyBismarckonamilitaristicbasisand，ontheother，alludestothename“theHolyRomanEmpireoftheGermannation“which，fromtheendofthefifteenthcenturyuntilitsformalliquidationin1806，waspartofthearchaicstateformation，themediaevalfeudalempire，foundedin962bytheGermankingOttoIandembracingtheterritoryofGermanyandseveralotherCentralEuropeanstates。Theempirewasaprecariousunityoffeudalprincipalitiesandfreetownsrecognisingthesupremepowerofanemperor。
[120]EngelshadinmindaspeechdeliveredbyBismarckintheLowerChamberofthePrussianLandtagonMarch20，1852，statingthat，iftherewereanotherupsurgeoftherevolutionarymovement，largetowns，ascentresoftherevolutionarymovement，oughttobewipedoutfromthefaceoftheearth。
[121]Theledger(Kommerzbuch)isdescribedbyWilhelmWeitlinginGarantienderHarmonieundFreiheit，SectionII，Ch。10，Vivis，1842。AccordingtoWeitling’sutopianplan，inthefuturesociety，everyable-bodiedpersonwouldhavetoworkacertainnumberofhoursadayand，inreturn，wouldreceivethenecessarymeansofsubsistence。Everypersonwouldhavetherighttoworkseveral“commercialhours“overandabovethistimeand，inreturn，toreceiveluxuryitems，differententertainments，theatreandconcerttickets，etc。Theseadditionalworkinghoursandtheproductsreceivedforthemwouldberecordedinaledger。
[122]Nonolet(it{money}doesnotstink):thesewordswerespokenbytheRomanEmperorVespasian(69-79
A。D。)inreplytohisson，whoreproachedhimforintroducingataxonlavatories。
[123]EquitableLabourExchangeBazaarswerefoundedbyworkers’co-operativesinvarioustownsofEngland;thefirstofthesebazaarswasfoundedbyOweninLondoninSeptember1832
andexisteduntilmid-1834。
[124]AdetailedcriticismoftheLassalleansloganof“full“orunlimited“proceedsoflabour“isgiveninSection1ofMarx’sCritiqueoftheGothaProgramme。
[125]Intheoriginal“Zarucker“——fromtheGermanzuruck(zaruck——inBerlindialect)，meaning“retrogradeperson“，“reactionary“(“Ruckschrittler“，“Reaktionar“)。
SeeA。Glafbrenner，HerrBuffe，inderZaruck-Gesellschaftin:Berlinwieesistund——trinit，Leipzig，1848，pp。14-15。
[126]AnexpressionfromtheresolutionwrittenbyPrussianKingFrederickIIonJuly22，1740inreplytoaninquiryfromMinistervonBrandandPresidentoftheConsistoryReichenbachastowhetherCatholicschoolsmightbepermittedinaProtestantPrussianstate。
[127]Maylaws——fourlawsoncreedadoptedonBismarck’sinitiativeinMay1873。TheselawsestablishedrigidstatecontrolovertheCatholicChurchandweretheculminationofBismarck’sso-calleddriveforculturefrom1872to1875，whichwasdirectedagainsttheCatholicclergyasthemainstayofthe“Centre“party，representingtheinterestsoftheseparatistsinSouthandSouth-westernGermany。PolicepersecutionmetwithdesperateresistancebyCatholicsandbroughtthemthehaloofmartyrdom。Fromthelate1870s，inordertouniteallthereactionaryforcesagainsttheworking-classmovement，Bismarck’sgovernmentwascompelledfirsttorelaxandthentorepealalmostalltheanti-Catholiclaws。
[128]TheMagicFlute——aMozartoperawithalibrettobyEmanuelSchikaneder。Composedandperformedin1791，itmirroredMasonicideas;boththeauthorofthelibrettoandMozarthimselfhavingbeenMasons。
[129]Referendary——Germanyajuniorofficial，chieflyalawyertrainedatcourtorinastateoffice。
ENGELS’NOTES[*1]Itismucheasier，alongwiththeunthinkingmobàlaKarlVogt，toassailtheoldphilosophyofnaturethantoappreciateitshistoricalsignificance。Itcontainsagreatdealofnonsenseandfantasybutnotmorethantheunphilosophicaltheoriesoftheempiricalnaturalscientistscontemporarywiththatphilosophy，andthattherewasalsoinitmuchthatwassensibleandrationalbegantobeperceivedafterthetheoryofevolutionbecamewidespread。HaeckelwasthereforefullyjustifiedinrecognisingthemeritsofTreviranusandOken。InhisprimordialslimeandprimordialvesicleOkenputforwardasabiologicalpostulatewhatwasinfactsubsequentlydiscoveredasprotoplasmandcell。AsfarasHegelisspecificallyconcerned，heisinmanyrespectsheadandshouldersabovehisempiricistcontemporaries，whothoughtthattheyhadexplainedallunexplainedphenomenawhentheyhadendowedthemwithsomeforceorpower——theforceofgravity，thepowerofbuoyancy，thepowerofelectricalcontact，etc——orwherethiswouldnotdo，withsomeunknownsubstance:thesubstanceoflight，ofheat，ofelectricity，etc。Theimaginarysubstanceshavenowbeenprettywelldiscarded，butthepowerhumbugagainstwhichHegelfoughtstillpopsupgaily，forexample，aslateas1869inHelmholtz’sInnsbrucklecture(Helmholtz，PopuläreVorlesungen，IssueII，1871，p。190)。IncontrasttothedeificationofNewtonwhichwashandeddownfromtheFrenchoftheeighteenthcentury，andtheEnglishheapingofhonoursandwealthonNewton，HegelbroughtoutthefactthatKepler，whomGermanyallowedtostarve，wastherealfounderofthemodernmechanicsofthecelestialbodies，andthattheNewtonianlawofgravitationwasalreadycontainedinallthreeofKepler’slaws，inthethirdlawevenexplicitly。WhatHegelprovesbyafewsimpleequationsinhisNaturphilosophie，§270andAddenda(Hegel’sWerke，1842，Vol。7，pp。98and113to115)，appearsagainastheoutcomeofthemostrecentmathematicalmechanicsinGustavKirchhoff’sVorlesungenubermathematischePhysik，2ndea。，Leipzig，1877，p。
10andinessentiallythesamesimplemathematicalformashadfirstbeendevelopedbyHegel。Thenaturalphilosophersstandinthesamerelationtoconsciouslydialecticalnaturalscienceastheutopianstomoderncommunism。
[*2]SinceIwrotetheaboveitwouldseemalreadytohavebeenconfirmed。AccordingtothelatestresearchescarriedoutwithmoreexactapparatusbyMendeleyevandBoguski，alltruegasesshowavariablerelationbetweenpressureandvolume;thecoefficientofexpansionforhydrogen，atallthepressuressofarapplied，hasbeenpositive(thatis，thediminutionofvolumewasslowerthantheincreaseofpressure);inthecaseofatmosphericairandtheothergasesexaminedthereisforeachazeropointofpressure，sothatwithpressurebelowthispointthecoefficientispositive，andwithpressureabovethispointtheircoefficientisnegative。SoBoyle’slaw，whichhasalwayshithertobeenusableforpracticalpurposes，willhavetobesupplementedbyawholeseriesofspeciallaws。(Wealsoknownow——in1885——thatthereareno“true“gasesatall。Theyhaveallbeenreducedtoaliquidform。)[46]
[*3]ThisderivationofthemodernideasofequalityfromtheeconomicconditionsofbourgeoissocietywasfirstdemonstratedbyMarxinCapital。
[*4]ThisisalreadyperfectlywellknowntothePrussianGeneralStaff。“Thebasisofwarfareisprimarilytheeconomicwayoflifeofthepeoplesingeneral“saidHerrMaxJahns，acaptainoftheGeneralStaff，inascientificlecture(KölnischeZeitung，April20，1876，p3)
[*5]Theperfectingofthelatestproductofmodernindustryforuseinnavalwarfare，theself-propelledtorpedo，seemslikelytobringthistopass;itwouldmeanthatthesmallesttorpedoboatwouldbesuperiortothemostpowerfularmouredwarship。(Itshouldbeborneinmindthattheabovewaswrittenin1878[81]。)
[*6]Andnoteventhis。Rodbertussays(SocialeBriefeLetter2，p。59):“Rentaccordingtothis“(his)
“theory，isallincomeobtainedwithoutpersonallabour，solelyonthegroundofpossession。”
[*7]Cf。PhilosophyI。[100]
[*8]Itishardlynecessaryinthisconnectiontopointoutthat，eveniftheformofappropriationremainsthesame，thecharacteroftheappropriationisjustasmuchrevolutionisedasproductionisbythechangesdescribedabove。Itis，ofcourse，averydifferentmatterwhetherIappropriatetomyselfmyownproductorthatofanother。Noteinpassingthatwage-labour，whichcontainsthewholecapitalisticmodeofproductioninembryo，isveryancient;inasporadic，scatteredformitexistedforcenturiesalongsideslave-labour。Buttheembryocoulddulydevelopintothecapitalisticmodeofproductiononlywhenthenecessaryhistoricalpreconditionshadbeenfurnished。
[*9]TheConditionoftheWorking-ClassinEngland，p。109。
[*10]Isay“haveto“。Foronlywhenthemeansofproductionanddistributionhaveactuallyoutgrowntheformofmanagementbyjoint-stockcompanies，andwhen，therefore，thetakingthemoverbythestatehasbecomeeconomicallyinevitable，onlythen——evenifitisthestateoftodaythateffectsthis——isthereaneconomicadvance，theattainmentofanothersteppreliminarytothetakingoverofallproductiveforcesbysocietyitself。Butoflate，sinceBismarckwentinforstate-ownershipofindustrialestablishments，akindofspurioussocialismhasarisen，degenerating，nowandagain，intosomethingofflunkeyism，thatwithoutmoreadodeclaresallstateownership，evenoftheBismarckiansort，tobesocialistic。Certainly，ifthetakingoverbythestateofthetobaccoindustryissocialistic，thenNapoleonandMetternichmustbenumberedamongthefoundersofsocialism。IftheBelgianstate，forquiteordinarypoliticalandfinancialreasons，itselfconstructeditschiefrailwaylines;ifBismarck，notunderanyeconomiccompulsion，tookoverforthestatethechiefPrussianlines，simplytobethebetterabletohavetheminhandincaseofwar，tobringuptherailwayemployeesasvotingcattleforthegovernment，andespeciallytocreateforhimselfanewsourceofincomeindependentofparliamentaryvotes——thiswas，innosense，asocialisticmeasure，directlyorindirectly，consciouslyorunconsciously。Otherwise，theRoyalMaritimeCompany，[116]theRoyalporcelainmanufacture，andeventheregimentaltailorofthearmywouldalsobesocialisticinstitutions。
[*11]Afewfiguresmayservetogiveanapproximateideaoftheenormousexpansiveforceofthemodernmeansofproduction，evenundercapitalistpressure。AccordingtoMr。Giffen，[118]thetotalwealthofGreatBritainandIrelandamounted，inroundnumbers，in1814to£2，200，000，000=44mldmarks1865to£6，100，000，000=122mldmarks1875to£8，500，000，000=170mldmarksAsaninstanceofthesquanderingofmeansofproductionandofproductsduringacrisis，thetotallossintheGermanironindustryalone，intherecentcrisis{of1873-78}wasgivenatthesecondGermanIndustrialCongress(Berlin，February21，1878)as455，000，000marks。
[*12]The“under-consumption“explanationofcrisesoriginatedwithSismondi，andinhisexpositionitstillhadacertainmeaning。RodbertustookitfromSismondi，andHerrDühringhasinturncopiedit，inhisusualvulgarisingfashion，fromRodbertus。
[*13]TheTRUCKSYSTEMinEngland，alsowellknowninGermany，isthatsystemunderwhichthemanufacturersthemselvesrunshopsandcompeltheirworkerstobuytheirgoodsthere。
[*14]Itmaybenotedinpassingthatthepartplayedbylabour-notesinOwen’scommunistsocietyiscompletelyunknowntoHerrDühring。Heknowsthesenotes——fromSargant——onlyinsofarastheyfigureinthelabourexchangebazaars[123]whichofcoursewerefailures，inasmuchastheywereattemptsbymeansofthedirectexchangeoflabourtopassfromexistingsocietyintocommunistsociety。
[*15]Aslongagoas1844Istatedthattheabove-mentionedbalancingofusefuleffectsandexpenditureoflabouronmakingdecisionsconcerningproductionwasallthatwouldbeleft，inacommunistsociety，ofthepolitico-economicconceptofvalue。(Deutsch-FranzösischeJahrbücher，p。95)Thescientificjustificationforthisstatement，however，ascanbeseen，wasmadepossibleonlybyMarx’sCapital。
[*16]Thistwofoldcharacterassumedlateronbythedivinitieswasoneofthecausesofthesubsequentlywidespreadconfusionofmythologies——acausewhichcomparativemythologyhasoverlooked，asitpaysattentionexclusivelytotheircharacterasreflectionsoftheforcesofnature。ThusinsomeGermanictribesthewar-godiscalledTyr(OldNordic)orZio(OldHighGerman)andsocorrespondstotheGreekZeus，LatinJupiterforDiespiter;inotherGermanictribes，Er，Eor，correspondsthereforetotheGreekAres，LatinMars。
