Itistruethatsuchvaguedescriptionsaremostlyfoundinoldersurveys，buttheinferencetobedrawnfromthefactissimplythatmanorialcustomsweredevelopinggraduallyfromratherindefiniterulestoaminutesettlementofdetails。Thereisnodifferenceinthemainprinciple，thatthedependenthouseholderwasnottobetreatedasaslaveandhadacustomaryrighttodevotepartofhistimetothemanagementofhisownaffairs。
Anotherpointistobekeptwellinview。Thewholearrangementofamanorialsurveyisconstructedwiththeholdingasitsbasis。Thenamesofvirgatersandcottersarecertainlymentionedforthesakeofclearness，butitwouldbewrongtoconsiderthedutiesascribedtothemasaimingattheperson。
JohnNewmanmaybesaidtoholdavirgate，tojoinwithhisplough-oxeninthetillageoftwentyacres，toattendatthreeboon-daysinharvesttime，andsoforth。ItwouldbemisleadingtotakethesestatementsveryliterallyandtoinferthatJohnNewmanwasalonetousethevirgateandtoworkforit。Hewasmostprobablymarried，andpossiblyhadgrown-upsonstohelphim；verylikelyabrotherwastherealso，andevenservants，poorhouselessmenfromthesamevillageorfromabroad。Everyhouseholderhasamoreorlessconsiderablefollowing(sequela)，(92*)anditwasbynomeansnecessaryfortheheadofthefamilytoperformallmanorialworkinhisownperson。Hehadtoappearortosendoneworkmanonmostoccasionsandtocomewithallhispeopleonafewdays——theboon-daysnamely。Thedescriptionoftheprecariaeisgenerallytheonlyoccasionwhentheextentstakethisintoaccount，namely，thattherewasaconsiderablepopulationinthevillagebesidesthosetenantswhowerementionedbyname。(93*)Ineednotpointout，thatthefacthasanimportantmeaning。Themedievalsystem，insofarasitrestedonthedistributionofholdings，wasinmanyrespectsmoreadvantageoustothetenantrythantothelord。Itwassuperficialinasense，andfromthepointofviewofthelorddidnotleadtoasatisfactoryresult；hedidnotgettheutmostthatwaspossiblefromhissubordinates。Thefactorofpopulationwasalmostdisregardedbyit，householdsverydifferentlyconstitutedinthisrespectwereassumedtobeequal，andthetenacityofcustompreventedanincreaseofrentsandlabour-servicesinproportiontothegrowthofresourceandwealthamongthepeasants。Someattemptstogetroundthesedifficultiesarenoticeableinthesurveys：theyaremostlyconnectedwiththeregulationofboon-works。Buttheseexceptionalmeasuresgiveindirectproofoftheveryinsufficientmannerinwhichthequestionwasgenerallysettled。
Theliabilitiesofthepeasantrytaketheshapeofproduce，labour，andmoney-rents。Almostineverymanorallthreekindsofimpositionsaretobefoundsplitupintoaconfusingvarietyofcustomaryobligations。Itisoutofthequestiontotraceatthepresenttime，withthehelpoffragmentaryandlatermaterial，whattheoriginalideaswerewhichunderliethesecomplicatedarrangements。Butalthoughareductiontosimpleguidingprinciplesaccountingforeverydetailcannotbeattempted，itiseasytoperceivethatchanceandfancywerenoteverythinginthesematters。Theseveraldutiesarebroughttogethersoastoformacertainwhole，andsomeoftheaimspursuedinthegroupingmaybeperceivedevennow。
Theoldersurveysoftenshowtheoperationofasystemwhichisadaptedbyitsveryessencetoaveryprimitivestateofsociety。Itmaybecalledthefarm-system，thewordfarmbeingusedintheoriginalsenseoftheSaxonfeorm，food，andnotinthelatermeaningoffixedrent，althoughthesetwomeaningsappearintimatelyconnectedinhistory。Thefarmisaquantityofproducenecessaryforthemaintenanceofthelord’shouseholdduringacertainperiod：itmaybeonenight’sorweek’soronefortnight’sfarmaccordingly。AverygoodinstanceofthesystemmaybefoundinanancientcartularyofRamsey，nowattheBritishMuseum，whichthoughcompiledintheearlythirteenthcentury，constantlyreferstotheorderofHenryII’stime。Theestatesoftheabbeyweretaxedinsuchawayastoyieldthirteenfullfarmsofafortnight，andeachofthesewastobeusedforthemaintenanceofthemonksthroughawholemonth。Theextensionoftheperiodisoddenough，andwedonotseeitsreasonclearly。ItfollowedprobablyongreatlossesinpropertyandincomeatthetimeofAbbotWalter。Howeverthismaybe，thethirteenfortnights’farmsweremadetoservealltheyearround，andtocoverfifty-twoweeksinsteadoftwenty-six。AveryminutedescriptionofthesinglefarmisgivenasitwaspaidbythemanorofAyllington(i。e。Elton)。Everykindofproduceismentioned：flourandbread，beerandhoney，bacon，cheese，lambs，geese，chicken，eggs，butter，&c。Thepriceofeacharticleismentionedinpence，anditisadded，thatfourpoundshavetobepaidinmoney。Bythesideoftheusualfarmthereappearsa’lent’farmwiththisdistinction，thatonlyhalfasmuchbaconandcheesehastobegivenasusual，andthedeficiencyistobemadeupbyamoneypayment。Someofthemanorsoftheabbeyhavetosendawholefarm，someothersonlyonehalf，thatisoneweek’sfarm，butallareassessedtopaysixteenpenceforeveryacretobeusedasalmsforthepoor。(94*)Thisdescriptionmaybetakenasastandardone，anditwouldbeeasytosupplementitinmanyparticularsfromtherecordsofothermonasticinstitutions。TherecordsofSt。Paul’s，London，supplyinformationastoadistributionofthefarmsatthecloseoftheeleventhcentury，whichcoveredfifty-twoweeks，sixdays，andfive-sixthsofaday。(95*)ThefirmaeofSt。Alban’swerereckonedtoprovideforthefifty-twoweeksoftheyear，andoneinadvance。(96*)Thepracticeofarrangingtheproduce-rentsaccordingtofarmswasbynomeansrestrictedtoecclesiasticalmanagement；itoccursalsoontheestatesoftheCrown，andwasprobablyinuseonthoseoflaylordsgenerally。EverypersonalittleconversantwithDomesdayknowsthefirmaeuniusnoctis，atwhichsomeoftheroyalmanorswereassessed。(97*)Intheperiodproperlycalledfeudal，thatisinthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies，thefood-revenuehadveryoftenbecomeonlythestarting-pointforareckoningofmoney-rents。TheSt。Alban’sfarms，forexample，arenolongerdeliveredinkind；theirequivalentinmoneyhastakentheirplace。Butthepreviousstateofthingshasleftacleartraceinthedivisionbyweeks。
Altogetheritseemsimpossibletodoubtthattheoriginalideawastoprovidereallythefoodnecessaryforconsumption。OnecannothelpthinkingthatsuchpracticemusthavecomefromtheveryearliesttimeswhenaSaxonoraCelticchieftaingothisincomefromtheterritoryunderhisswaybymovingfromoneplacetoanotherwithhisretinueandfeedingonthepeopleforacertainperiod。Thisveryprimitivemodeofraisingincomeandconsumingitatthesametimemayoccasionallystrikeoureyeeveninthemiddleofthethirteenthcentury。ThetenantsoftheAbbotofOsulvestoninDoningtonandBykerareboundtoreceivetheirlordduringonenightandonedaywhenhecomestoholdhiscourtintheirplace。Theyfindthenecessaryfoodandbeverageforhimandforhismen，provenderforhishorses，andsoforth。
Iftheabbotdoesnotcomeinperson，thehomagemaysettleaboutacommutationofthedutieswiththestewardorthesergeantsentforthepurpose。Ifherefusestotakemoney，theymustbringeverythinginkind。(98*)
Thisisanexceptionalinstance：generallythefarmhastobesenttothelord’sresidence，probablyafteradeductionfortherequirementsofthemanorinwhichitwasgathered。Whenithadreachedthisstagethesystemisalreadyindecay。Itisnotonlydifficulttoprovideforthecarriage，butactuallyimpossibletokeepsomeofthearticlesfrombeingspoilt。BreadsenttoWestminsterfromsomeWorcestershirepossessionoftheminsterwouldnothavebeenverygoodwhenitreacheditsdestination。
Thesteptowardsmoney-paymentsisnaturalandnecessary。
Beforeleavingthefood-rentswemusttakenoticeofoneOrtwomorepeculiaritiesofthissystem。Itisobviousthatitwasarrangedfromabove，ifonemayusetheexpression。Theassessmentdoesnotproceedinthiscasebywayofanestimateofthepayingorproducingstrengthofeachunitsubjectedtoit，i。e。ofeachpeasanthousehold。Theresultisnotmadeupbymultiplyingtherevenuefromeveryholdingbythenumberofsuchholdings。Thewholereckoningstartsfromtheotherend，fromthewantsofthemanorialadministration。Therequirementsofanightorofaweekareusedasthestandardtowhichthetaxationhastoconform。Thisbeingthecase，thecorrespondencebetweentheamountofthetaxesandtheactualconditionofthetax-payerwasonlyaverylooseone。Manorsofverydifferentsizewerebroughtintothesameclassinpointofassessment，andtheroughdistinctionsbetweenawholefarmandhalf-a-farmcouldnotfollowatallcloselythevarietyoffactsinreallife，evenwhentheyweresupplementedbytheadditionofroundsumsofmoney。
Theseobservationsleadatoncetoimportantquestions；howwasthefarm-assessmentdistributedineverysinglemanor，andwhatwasitsinfluenceonthedutiesofthesinglehouseholder？
Itseemshardlydoubtful，tobeginwith，thatthefood-rentchangedverymuchinthisrespect。Originally，whentheconditionofthingswasmoreorlessliketheOsulvestoneexample，thefarmmusthavebeentheresultofco-operationonthepartofallthehouseholdersofatownship，whohadtocontributeaccordingtotheirmeanstofurnishthenecessaryarticles。ButthefarmofSt。Paul’s，London，evenwhenitispaidinproduce，isaverydifferentthing。Itistheresultofaconventionwiththefirmarius，ormaybewiththetownshipitselfintheplaceofafirmarius。(99*)Itdependsonlyindirectlyontheservicesandpaymentsofthepeasantry。Partoftheflour，bread，beer，etc。，maycomefromthecultivationofthedemesnelands；anotherportionwillappearastheproceedofweek-workandboon-workperformedbythevillains，andonlyoneportion，perhapsaveryinsignificantone，willbelevieddirectlyasproduce。Inthiswaythereisnobreakbetweenthefood-rentsystemandthelabour-system。Onemaystillexistforpurposesofageneralassessmentwhentheotherhasalreadytakenholdoftheinternalarrangementofthemanor。
Mostofourdocumentspresentthelabourarrangementinfulloperation。Eachmanormayberegardedasanorganisedgroupofhouseholdsinwhichthecentralbodyrepresentedbythelord’sfarmhassucceededinsubordinatingseveralsmallerbodiestoitsdirectinginfluence。Everysatellitehasamovementofitsown，isrevolvingrounditsowncentre，andatthesametimeitisattractedtoturnroundthechiefplanet，andiscarriedawayinitspath。Theconstellationisaverypeculiaroneandmostsignificantforthecourseofmedievalhistory。Regardedfromtheeconomicstandpointitisneitherasystemofgreatfarmingnoroneofsmallfarming，butacompoundofboth。Theestateofthelordisinasensemanagedonagreatscale，butthemanagementisboundupwithasupplyandadistributionoflabourwhichdependontheconditionsofthesmalltributaryhouseholds。Itwouldbeimpossiblenow-a-daystosayforcertainhowmuchofthecustomaryorderofweek-workandboon-workwasderivedfromacalculationoftherequirementsofthemanorialadministration，andhowmuchofitistoberegardedasapercentagetakenfromtheprofitsofeachindividualtenant。(100*)Bothelementsprobablyco-operatedtoproducetheresult：theoperationsperformedforthebenefitofthelordwereorderedinacertainwaypartlybecausesomanyacreshadtobetilled，somuchhayandcornhadtobereapedonthelord’sestate；andpartlybecausethepeasantvirgatersorcotterswereknowntoworkforthemselvesinacertainmannerandconsideredcapableofyieldingsomuchasapercentageoftheirworkingpower。Butalthoughwehaveacompromisebeforeusinthisrespect，itmustbenotedthattherelationbetweenthepartsandthewholeisobviouslydifferentunderthesystemoflabourservicesfromwhatitwasunderthefarm-system。Ithasbeenpointedoutthatthefood-rentarrangementwasimposedfromabovewithoutmuchtroublebeingtakentoascertaintheexactvalueandcharacterofthetributaryunitssubjectedtoit。Thislaterelementiscertainlyveryprominentinthecustomarylabour-system，whichonthewholeappearstobeconstructedfrombelow。Isitnecessarytoaddthatthissecondformofsubjectionwasbynomeansthelighterone？
Theverydifferentiationoftheburdenmeansthatthearistocraticalpowerofthelandlordhaspenetrateddeepenoughtoattemptanexactevaluationofdetails。
Ihavehadoccasionsomanytimesalreadytospeakoftheprocessofcommutation，thatthereisnocallnowtoexplainthereasonswhichinducedbothlandlordsandpeasantstoexchangelabourformoney-rents。Ihaveonlytosaynowthatthesameremarkwhichappliedtothepassagefromproduce’farms’tolabourholdsgoodastothepassagefromlabourtomoneypayments。Thereisnobreakbetweenthearrangements。Inageneralwaythemoneyassessmentfollows，ofcourse，asthethirdmodeofsettlingtherelationbetweenlordandtenant，andwemaysaythatrentalsareasmuchtherulefromthefourteenthcenturydownwardsascustumalsaretheruleinthethirteenthandearliercenturies。ButifwetakeuptheDomesdayofSt。Paul’sof1222，ortheGlastonburyinquestof1189，oreventheBurtonCartularyoftheearlytwelfthcentury，ineveryoneofthesedocumentsweshallfindagreatnumberofrent-payingtenants，(101*)andevenagreaternumberofpeoplefluctuating，asitwere，betweenlabourandrent。Insomecasespeasantspasseddirectlyfromtheobligationofsupplyingproducetothepaymentofcorrespondingrentsinmoney。Thegradualexemptionfromlabourisevenmoreapparentintherecords。Itischaracteristicthatthefirstmoveisgenerallyasubstitutionofthemoneyarrangementwiththetacitoreventheexpressedprovisionthattheassessmentisnottobeconsideredaspermanentandbinding。(102*)Itremainsatthepleasureofthelordtogobacktothedutiesinkind。Butalthoughsucharetrogressivemovementactuallytakesplaceinsomefewcases，thegeneralspreadofmoneypaymentsishardlyarrestedbytheseexceptionalinstances。(103*)
