第15章

Saint-Paul，parErnestRenan。Paris， HistoireduDogmedelaDivinitedeJesus-Christ，parAlbertReville。Paris，1869。 TheEndoftheWorldandtheDayofJudgment。TwoDiscoursesbytheRev。W。R。Alger。Boston:RobertsBrothers，1870。 ThemeagrenessofourinformationconcerningthehistoriccareerofJesusstandsinstrikingcontrastwiththemassofinformationwhichlieswithinourreachconcerningtheprimitivecharacterofChristologicspeculation。FirstwehavethefourepistlesofPaul，writtenfromtwentytothirtyyearsafterthecrucifixion，which，althoughtheytellusnexttonothingaboutwhatJesusdid，neverthelessgiveusveryplaininformationastotheimpressionwhichhemade。ThenwehavetheApocalypse，writtenbyJohn，A。D。68，whichexhibitstheMessianictheoryentertainedbytheearliestdisciples。NextwehavetheepistlestotheHebrews，Philippians，Colossians，andEphesians，besidesthefourgospels，constitutingaltogetheraconnectedchainoftestimonytotheprogressofChristiandoctrinefromthedestructionofJerusalemtothetimeoftheQuartodecimancontroversy(A。D。 70-170)。Finally，thereisthevastcollectionofapocryphal，heretical，andpatristicliterature，fromthewritingsofJustinMartyr，thepseudo-Clement，andthepseudo-Ignatius，downtothetimeoftheCouncilofNikaia，whentheofficialtheoriesofChrist’spersonassumedverynearlytheshapewhichtheyhaveretained，withintheorthodoxchurchesofChristendom，downtothepresentday。Aswepointedoutintheforegoingessay，whileallthisvoluminousliteraturethrowsbutanuncertainlightuponthelifeandteachingsofthefounderofChristianity，itneverthelessfurnishesnearlyallthedatawhichwecoulddesireforknowingwhattheearlyChristiansthoughtofthemasteroftheirfaith。HavinggivenabriefaccountofthehistoriccareerofJesus，sofarasitcannowbedetermined，weproposeheretosketchtheriseandprogressofChristologicdoctrine，initsmoststrikingfeatures，duringthefirstthreecenturies。 BeginningwiththeapostolicviewofthehumanMessiahsenttodeliverJudaismfromitsspiritualtorpor，andprepareitforthemillennialkingdom，weshallbrieflytracetheprogressivemetamorphosisofthisconceptionuntilitcompletelylosesitsidentityintheAthanasiantheory，accordingtowhichJesuswasGodhimself，theCreatoroftheuniverse，incarnateinhumanflesh。 TheearliestdogmaheldbytheapostlesconcerningJesuswasthatofhisresurrectionfromthegraveafterdeath。Itwasnotonlytheearliest，butthemostessentialtothesuccessofthenewreligion。ChristianitymighthaveoverspreadtheRomanEmpire，andmaintaineditsholduponmen’sfaithuntilto-day，withoutthedogmasoftheincarnationandtheTrinity；butwithoutthedogmaoftheresurrectionitwouldprobablyhavefailedattheveryoutset。Itsloftymoralitywouldnotalonehavesufficedtoinsureitssuccess。Forwhatmenneededthen，asindeedtheystillneed，andwillalwaysneed，wasnotmerelyaruleoflifeandamirrortotheheart，butalsoacomprehensiveandsatisfactorytheoryofthings，aphilosophyortheosophy。Thetimesdemandedintellectualaswellasmoralconsolation；andthedisintegrationofancienttheologiesneededtoberepaired，thatthenewethicalimpulseimpartedbyChristianitymightrestuponaplausiblespeculativebasis。ThedoctrineoftheresurrectionwasbutthebeginningofaseriesofspeculativeinnovationswhichpreparedthewayforthenewreligiontoemancipateitselffromJudaism，andachievetheconquestoftheEmpire。EventhefaithoftheapostlesinthespeedyreturnoftheirmastertheMessiahmusthavesomewhatlostground，haditnotbeensupportedbytheirbeliefinhisresurrectionfromthegraveandhisconsequenttransferfromSheol，thegloomylandofshadows，totheregionsabovethesky。 Theoriginofthedogmaoftheresurrectioncannotbedeterminedwithcertainty。Thequestionhas，duringthepastcentury，beenthesubjectofmuchdiscussion，uponwhichitisnotnecessaryforusheretocomment。SuchapparentevidenceasthereisinfavouroftheoldtheoryofJesus’naturalrecoveryfromtheeffectsofthecrucifixionmaybefoundinSalvador’s“Jesus-ChristetsaDoctrine“；but，asZellerhasshown，thetheoryisutterlyunsatisfactory。ThenaturalreturnofJesustohisdisciplesnevercouldhavegivenrisetothenotionofhisresurrection，sincethenaturalexplanationwouldhavebeenthemoreobviousone；besideswhich，ifweweretoadoptthishypothesis，weshouldbeobligedtoaccountforthefactthatthehistoriccareerofJesusendswiththecrucifixion。Themostprobableexplanation，onthewhole，istheonesuggestedbytheaccountsinthegospels，thatthedogmaoftheresurrectionisdueoriginallytotheexcitedimaginationofMaryofMagdala。[23] ThetestimonyofPaulmayalsobecitedinfavourofthisview，sincehealwaysalludestoearlierChristophaniesinjustthesamelanguagewhichheusesindescribinghisownvisionontheroadtoDamascus。 [23]SeeTaine，Del’Intelligence，II。192。 ButthequestionastohowthebeliefintheresurrectionofJesusoriginatedisoflessimportancethanthequestionastohowitshouldhaveproducedtheeffectthatitdid。Thedogmaoftheresurrectionhas，untilrecenttimes，beensorarelytreatedfromthehistoricalpointofview，thatthestudentofhistoryatfirstfindssomedifficultyinthoroughlyrealizingitsimporttothemindsofthosewhofirstproclaimedit。WecannothopetounderstanditwithoutbearinginmindthetheoriesoftheJewsandearlyChristiansconcerningthestructureoftheworldandthecosmiclocationofdepartedsouls。SincethetimeofCopernicusmodernChristiansnolongerattempttolocateheavenandhell；theyareconceivedmerelyasmysteriousplacesremotefromtheearth。Thetheologicaluniversenolongercorrespondstothatwhichphysicalsciencepresentsforourcontemplation。ItwasquitedifferentwiththeJew。HisconceptionoftheabodeofJehovahandtheangels，andofdepartedsouls，wasexceedinglysimpleanddefinite。IntheJewishtheorytheuniverseislikeasortofthree-storyhouse。Theflatearthrestsuponthewaters，andundertheearth’ssurfaceisthelandofgraves，calledSheol，whereafterdeaththesoulsofallmengo，therighteousaswellasthewicked，fortheJewhadnotarrivedatthedoctrineofheavenandhell。TheHebrewSheolcorrespondsstrictlytotheGreekHades，beforethenotionsofElysiumandTartaruswereaddedtoit，——alandpeopledwithflittingshadows，sufferingnotorment，butexperiencingnopleasure，likethosewhomDantemetinoneoftheuppercirclesofhisInferno。Sheolisthefirststoryofthecosmichouse；theearthisthesecond。 Abovetheearthisthefirmamentorsky，which，accordingtothebookofGenesis(chap。i。v。6，Hebrewtext)，isavastplatehammeredoutbythegods，andsupportsagreatoceanlikethatuponwhichtheearthrests。Rainiscausedbytheopeningoflittlewindowsortrap-doorsinthefirmament，throughwhichpoursthewaterofthisupperocean。Uponthiswaterreststhelandofheaven，whereJehovahreigns，surroundedbyhostsofangels。Tothisblessedlandtwoonlyofthehumanracehadeverbeenadmitted，——EnochandElijah，thelatterofwhomhadascendedinachariotoffire，andwasdestinedtoreturntoearthastheheraldandforerunneroftheMessiah。Heavenformsthethirdstoryofthecosmichouse。Betweenthefirmamentandtheearthistheair，whichisthehabitationofevildemonsruledbySatan，the“princeofthepowersoftheair。“ SuchwasthecosmologyoftheancientJew；andhistheologywasequallysimple。Sheolwasthedestinedabodeofallmenafterdeath，andnotheoryofmoralretributionwasattachedtotheconception。TherewardsandpunishmentsknowntotheauthorsofthePentateuchandtheearlyPsalmsareallearthlyrewardsandpunishments。ButincourseoftimetheprosperityofthewickedandthemisfortunesofthegoodmanfurnishedatroublesomeproblemfortheJewishthinker；andaftertheBabylonishCaptivity，wefindthedoctrineofaresurrectionfromSheoldevisedinordertomeetthiscase。Accordingtothisdoctrine——whichwasborrowedfromtheZarathustriantheologyofPersia——theMessiahonhisarrivalwastofreefromSheolallthesoulsoftherighteous，causingthemtoascendreinvestedintheirbodiestoarenewedandbeautifulearth，whileontheotherhandthewickedweretobepunishedwithtortureslikethoseofthevalleyofHinnom，orweretobeimmersedinliquidbrimstone，likethatwhichhadraineduponSodomandGomorrah。Herewegetthefirstannouncementofafuturestateofretribution。ThedoctrinewaspeculiarlyPharisaic，andtheSadducees，whowerestrictadherentstotheletterofMosaism，rejectedittothelast。BydegreesthisdoctrinebecamecoupledwiththeMessianictheoriesofthePharisees。ThelossofJewishindependenceunderthedominionofPersians，Macedonians，andRomans，causedthepeopletolookevermoreearnestlytowardtheexpectedtimewhentheMessiahshouldappearinJerusalemtodeliverthemfromtheiroppressors。ThemoraldoctrinesofthePsalmsandearlierprophetsassumedanincreasinglypoliticalaspect。TheJewsweretherighteous“underacloud，“whosesufferingsweresymbolicallydepictedbytheyoungerIsaiahastheafflictionsofthe“servantofJehovah“；whileontheotherhand，the“wicked“weretheGentileoppressorsoftheholypeople。AccordinglytheMessiah，onhisarrival，wastositinjudgmentinthevalleyofJehoshaphat，rectifyingthewrongsofhischosenones，condemningtheGentiletyrantstothetormentsofGehenna，andraisingfromSheolallthoseJewswhohadlivedanddiedduringtheeviltimesbeforehiscoming。TheseweretofindintheMessianickingdomthecompensationfortheillswhichtheyhadsufferedintheirfirstearthlyexistence。SucharethemainoutlinesofthetheoryfoundintheBookofEnoch，writtenaboutB。C。100，anditisadoptedintheJohannineApocalypse，withlittlevariation，saveintherecognitionofJesusastheMessiah，andinthetransferrencetohissecondcomingofallthesewonderfulproceedings。ThemanneroftheMessiah’scominghadbeenvariouslyimagined。Accordingtoanearlierview，hewastoenterJerusalemasaKingofthehouseofDavid，andthereforeofhumanlineage。Accordingtoalaterview，presentedintheBookofDaniel，hewastodescendfromthesky，andappearamongtheclouds。BoththeseviewswereadoptedbythedisciplesofJesus，whoharmonizedthembyreferringtheonetohisfirstandtheothertohissecondappearance。 NowtotheimaginationsoftheseearliestdisciplesthebeliefintheresurrectionofJesuspresenteditselfasaneedfulguaranteeofhisMessiahship。Theirfaith，whichmusthavebeenshakenbyhisexecutionanddescentintoSheol，receivedwelcomeconfirmationbythespringingupofthebeliefthathehadbeenagainseenuponthefaceoftheearth。ApplyingtheimageryofDaniel，itbecamealogicalconclusionthathemusthaveascendedintothesky，whencehemightshortlybeexpectedtomakehisappearance，toenactthescenesforetoldinprophecy。ThatsuchwastheactualprocessofinferenceisshownbythelegendoftheAscensioninthefirstchapterofthe“Acts，“andespeciallybythewords，“ThisJesuswhohathbeentakenupfromyouintoheaven，willcomeinthesamemannerinwhichyebeheldhimgoingintoheaven。“IntheApocalypse，writtenA。D。68，justafterthedeathofNero，thissecondcomingisdescribedassomethingimmediatelytohappen，andthecoloursinwhichitisdepictedshowhowcloselyalliedweretheJohanninenotionstothoseofthePharisees。ThegloriesoftheNewJerusalemaretobereservedforJews，whilefortheRomantyrantsofJudaeaisreservedafearfulretribution。TheyaretobetroddenunderfootbytheMessiah，likegrapesinawine-press，untilthegushingbloodshallrisetotheheightofthehorse’sbridle。 InthewritingsofPaulthedogmaoftheresurrectionassumesaverydifferentaspect。ThoughPaul，liketheolderapostles，heldthatJesus，astheMessiah，wastoreturntotheearthwithinafewyears，yettohiscatholicmindthisanticipatedeventhadbecomedivestedofitsnarrowJewishsignificance。IntheeyesofPaul，thereligionpreachedbyJesuswasanabrogationofMosaism，andthetruthscontainedinitwereafreegifttotheGentileaswellastotheJewishworld。AccordingtoPaul，deathcameintotheworldasapunishmentforthesinofAdam。Bythishemeantthat，haditnotbeenfortheoriginaltransgression，allmenescapingdeathwouldeitherhaveremaineduponearthorhavebeenconveyedtoheaven，likeEnochandElijah，inincorruptiblebodies。Butinrealityasapenancefordisobedience，allmen，withthesetwoexceptions，hadsuffereddeath，andbeenexiledtothegloomycavernsofSheol。TheMosaicritualwaspowerlesstofreemenfromthisrepulsivedoom，butithadneverthelessservedagoodpurposeinkeepingmen’smindsdirectedtowardholiness，preparingthem，asaschoolmasterwouldpreparehispupils，toreceivethevitalizingtruthsofChrist。