第30章

Coincidentwiththisattackfromwithout，wefindareformationbegunwithin，asexemplifiedintheDominicanandFranciscanmovements。ThesecondgreatblowwasaimedbyPhilipIV。ofFrance，andthistimeitstruckwithterribleforce。TheremovalofthePapacytoAvignon，in1305，wasthevirtualthoughunrecognizedabdicationofitsbeneficentsupremacy。Bereftofitsdignityandindependence，fromthattimeforthitceasedtobethedefenderofnationalunityagainstbaronialanarchy，ofpopularrightsagainstmonarchicalusurpation，andbecameaformidableinstrumentofdespotismandoppression。Throughthevicissitudesofthegreatschisminthefourteenthcentury，andtherefractorycouncilsinthefifteenth，itspositionbecamerapidlymoreandmoreretrogradeanddemoralized。Andwhen，in1530，itjoineditsforceswiththoseofCharlesV。，incrushingthelibertiesoftheworthiestofmediaevalrepublics，itbecameevidentthatthecauseoffreedomandprogressmusthenceforthbeintrustedtosomemorefaithfulchampion。TherevoltofNorthernEurope，ledbyLutherandHenryVIII。wasbutthearticulateannouncementofthisalteredstateofaffairs。SolongastheRomanChurchhadbeenfelttobetheenemyoftyrannicalmonarchsandthesteadfastfriendofthepeople，itsencroachments，asrepresentedbymenlikeDunstanandBecket，wereregardedwithpopularfavour。ThestrengthoftheChurchlayeverinitsdemocraticinstincts；andwhenthesewerefoundtohaveabandonedit，theindignantprotestofLuthersufficedtotearawayhalfofEuropefromitsallegiance。 Bytheendofthesixteenthcentury，wefindtheterritorialstrugglebetweentheChurchandthereformedreligionsubstantiallydecided。ProtestantismandCatholicismoccupiedthenthesamerespectiveareaswhichtheynowoccupy。Since1600 therehasbeennoinstanceofanationpassingfromoneformofworshiptotheother；andinallprobabilitythereneverwillbe。 Sincethewholesaledissolutionofreligiousbeliefswroughtinthelastcentury，thewholeissuebetweenRomanismandProtestantism，regardedasdogmaticsystems，ispracticallydead。 M。Renanisgivingexpressiontoanalmostself-evidenttruth，whenhesaysthatreligiousdevelopmentisnolongertoproceedbywayofsectarianproselytism，butbywayofharmoniousinternaldevelopment。Thecontestisnolongerbetweenonetheologyandanother，butitisbetweenthetheologicalandthescientificmethodsofinterpretingnaturalphenomena。Thesixteenthcenturyhastousthereforetheinterestbelongingtoaroundedandcompletedtale。Itcontainswithinitselfsubstantiallytheentirehistoryofthefinalstageofthetheologicalreformation。 Thisgreatperiodfallsnaturallyintotwodivisions，thefirstcorrespondingverynearlywiththereignsofCharlesV。andHenryVIII。，andthesecondwiththeageofPhilipII。andElizabeth。 ThefirstoftheseperiodswasfilledwiththeskirmisheswhichweretoopenthegreatbattleoftheReformation。Atfirstthestrengthandextentofthenewrevolutionwerenotaltogetherapparent。WhiletheInquisitionwasvigorouslycrushingoutthefirstsymptomsofdisaffectioninSpain，itatonetimeseemedasiftheReformerswereabouttogainthewholeoftheEmpire，besidesacquiringanexcellentfootholdinFrance。Again，whileEnglandwaswaveringbetweentheoldandthenewfaith，thelasthopesoftheReforminGermanyseemedlikelytobedestroyedbythemilitarygeniusofCharles。ButinMaurice，thered-beardedheroofSaxony，Charlesfoundmorethanhismatch。ThepictureoftherapidanddesperatemarchofMauriceuponInnspruck，andofthegreatEmperorflyingforhislifeattheveryhourofhisimaginedtriumph，hasstillforusanintenserinterestthanalmostanyothersceneofthatage；foritwastheeventwhichprovedthatProtestantismwasnotamerelocalinsurrectionwhichamonarchlikeCharlescouldeasilyputdown，butagiganticrevolutionagainstwhichallthepowersintheworldmightwellstriveinvain。 WiththeabdicationofCharlesin1556thenewperiodmaybesaidtobegin，anditisherethatMr。Motley’shistorycommences。 Eventscrowdedthickandfast。In1556PhilipII。，aprincebredandeducatedforthedistinctpurposeofsuppressingheresy，succeededtotheruleofthemostpowerfulempirewhichhadbeenseensincethedaysoftheAntonines。InthepreviousyearanewerahadbegunatthecourtofRome。Theoldraceofpaganpontiffs，theBorgias，theFarneses，andtheMedicis，hadcometoanend，andthepapalthronewasoccupiedbythepuritanicalCaraffa，asviolentafanaticasRobespierre，andafoeoffreedomasuncompromisingasPhilipII。himself。UnderhisauspicestookplacethegreatreformintheChurchsignalizedbytheriseoftheJesuits，asthereforminthethirteenthcenturyhadbeenattendedbytheriseoftheCordeliersandDominicans。 Hisnameshouldnotbeforgotten，foritismainlyowingtothepolicyinauguratedbyhimthatCatholicismwasenabledtoholditsgroundaswellasitdid。In1557thenextyear，thestrengthofFrancewasbrokenatSt。Quentin，andSpainwasleftwithherhandsfreetodealwiththeProtestantpowers。In1558，bytheaccessionofElizabeth，EnglandbecamecommittedtothecauseofReform。In1559thestormyadministrationofMargaretbeganintheNetherlands。In1560theScotchnoblesachievedthedestructionofCatholicisminNorthBritain。BythistimeeverynationexceptFrance，hadtakensidesintheconflictwhichwastolast，withhardlyanycessation，duringtwogenerations。 Mr。Motley，therefore，indescribingtheriseandprogressoftheunitedrepublicoftheNetherlands，iswritingnotDutchbutEuropeanhistory。OnhispagesFrance，Spain，andEnglandmakealmostaslargeafigureasHollanditself。HeiswritingthehistoryoftheReformationduringitsconcludingepoch，andhechoosestheNetherlandsashismainsubject，becauseduringthatperiodtheNetherlandswerethecentreofthemovement。Theyconstitutedthegreatbulwarkoffreedom，anduponthesuccessorfailureoftheircausethefutureprospectofEuropeandofmankinddepended。SpainandtheNetherlands，PhilipII。andWilliamtheSilent，werethetwoleadingantagonistsandwerefelttobesuchbytheothernationsandrulersthatcametomingleinthestrife。ItisthereforeastupidcriticismwhichwehaveseenmadeuponMr。Motley，that，havingbroughthisnarrativedowntothetruceof1609，heought，insteadofdescribingtheThirtyYears’War，tokeeponwithDutchhistory，andpourtraythewarsagainstCromwellandCharlesII。，andthestruggleofthesecondWilliamofOrangeagainstLouisXIV。Bysodoinghewouldonlyviolatetheunityofhisnarrative。ThewarsoftheDutchagainstEnglandandFrancebelongtoanentirelydifferentepochinEuropeanhistory，——amodernepoch，inwhichpoliticalandcommercialinterestswereofprimeimportance，andtheologicalinterestsdistinctlysubsidiary。ThenaturalterminusofMr。Motley’sworkisthePeaceofWestphalia。AfterbringingdownhishistorytothetimewhentheindependenceoftheNetherlandswasvirtuallyacknowledged，afterdescribingtheprincipalstagesofthestruggleagainstCatholicismanduniversalmonarchy，ascarriedoninthefirstgenerationbyElizabethandWilliam，andinthesecondbyMauriceandHenry，hewillnaturallygoontotreatoftheepilogueasconductedbyRichelieuandGustavus，endinginthefinalcessationofreligiouswarsthroughoutEurope。 TheconflictintheNetherlandswasindeedfarmorethanamerereligiousstruggle。Initscoursewasdistinctlybroughtintoprominencethefactwhichwehaveabovesignalized，thatsincetheRomanChurchhadabandonedthelibertiesofthepeopletheyhadfoundanewdefenderinthereformedreligion。TheDutchrebellionispeculiarlyinteresting，becauseitwasarevoltnotmerelyagainsttheInquisition，butalsoagainstthetemporalsovereigntyofPhilip。Besideschangingtheirreligion，thesturdyNetherlanderssawfittothrowofftheswayoftheirlegitimateruler，andtoproclaimthethricehereticaldoctrineofthesovereigntyofthepeople。InthisonerespecttheirviewsweredecidedlymoremodernthanthoseofElizabethandHenryIV。 ThesegreatmonarchsapparentlyneitherunderstoodnorrelishedtherepublicantheoriesoftheHollanders；thoughitishardlynecessaryforMr。Motleytosneeratthemquitesooftenbecausetheywerenottoanimpossibledegreeinadvanceoftheirage。 TheproclamationofarepublicintheNetherlandsmarkedofitselfthebeginningofanewera，——anerawhenflourishingcommunitiesofmenwerenolongertobeboughtandsold，transferredandbequeathedlikerealestateandchattels，butweretohaveandmaintaintherightofchoosingwithwhomandunderwhomtheyshouldtransacttheiraffairs。Theinterminablenegotiationsforatruce，whichfillnearlyonethirdofMr。 Motley’sconcludingvolume，exhibitwithstrikingdistinctnessthedifferencebetweentheoldandnewpointsofview。HereagainwethinkMr。Motleyerrsslightly，incallingtoomuchattentiontotheprevaricatingdiplomacyoftheSpanishcourt，andtoolittletoitsmanifestinabilitytocomprehendthedemandsoftheNetherlanders。HowshouldstatesmenbroughtupunderPhilipII。 andkeptundertheeyeoftheInquisitionbeexpectedtounderstandaclaimforlibertyoriginatingintherightsofthecommonpeopleandnotinthegraciousbenevolenceorintelligentpolicyoftheKing？Theveryideamusthavebeenpracticallyinconceivablebythem。Accordingly，theystrovebyeveryavailabledeviceofchicanerytowheedletheNetherlandersintoacceptingtheirindependenceasagiftfromtheKingofSpain。 Buttosuchapieceofself-stultificationtheclear-sightedDutchmencouldbynopersuasionbebroughttoconsent。Theirindependence，theyargued，wasnottheKing’stogive。Theyhadwonitfromhimandhisfather，inawaroffortyyears，duringwhichtheyhadsufferedatrociousmiseries，andallthattheKingofSpaincoulddowastoacknowledgeitastheirright，andceasetomolesttheminfuture。Overthispoint，sosimpletousbutknottyenoughinthosedays，thecommissionerswrangledfornearlytwoyears。AndwhentheSpanishgovernment，unabletocarryonthewaranylongerwithoutriskofutterbankruptcy，anddailycrippledinitsresourcesbytheattacksoftheDutchnavy，grudginglyareedtoatruceupontheNetherlanders’terms，itvirtuallyacknowledgeditsowndefeatandthedownfalloftheprinciplesforwhichithadsoobstinatelyfought。Bythetruceof1609therepublicanprinciplewasadmittedbythemostdespoticofgovernments。 Herewasthefirstgreattriumphofrepublicanismovermonarchy； anditwasnotlonginbearingfruits。FortheDutchrevolution，thesettlementofAmericabyEnglishPuritans，thegreatrebellionoftheCommons，theRevolutionof1688，therevoltoftheAmericanColonies，andthegeneraloverthrowoffeudalismin1789，arebutsuccessiveactsinthesamedramaWilliamtheSilentwastheworthyforerunnerofCromwellandWashington；andbutforthevictorywhichhewon，duringhislifeandafterhisuntimelydeath，thesubsequenttriumphsofcivillibertymighthavebeenlong，postponed。 OverthesublimefigureofWilliam——saevistranquillusinundis——weshouldbegladtodwell，butwearenotreviewingthe“RiseoftheDutchRepublic，“andinMr。Motley’spresentvolumestheherooftolerationappearsnolonger。Hisantagonist，however，——thePhilipwhomGodforsomeinscrutablepurposepermittedtoafflictEuropeduringareignofforty-twoyears，——accompaniesusnearlytotheendofthepresentwork，dyingjustintimeforthehistoriantosumupthecaseagainsthim，andpronouncefinaljudgment。ForthememoryofPhilipII。 Mr。Motleycherishesnoweakpity。Herarelyalludestohimwithoutcommentinguponhistotaldepravity，andhedismisseshimwiththeremarkthat“iftherearevices——aspossiblythereare——fromwhichhewasexempt，itisbecauseitisnotpermittedtohumannaturetoattainperfectioninevil。“Theverdictisnonethelessjustbecauseofitsconciseness。IfthereeverwasastrifebetweenHerculesandCacus，betweenOrmuzdandAhriman，betweenthePowerofLightandthePowerofDarkness，itwascertainlythestrifebetweenthePrinceofOrangeandtheSpanishMonarch。TheyarecontrastedlikethelightandshadeinoneofDore’spictures。AndyetitisperhapsunnecessaryforMr。MotleytosaythatifPhiliphadbeenalivewhenSpinolawonforhimthegreatvictoryofOstend，“hewouldhavefeltithisdutytomakeimmediatearrangementsforpoisoninghim。“DoubtlesstheimputationissufficientlyjustifiedbywhatweknowofPhilip；