INTRODUCTION
ThislittlebookismeantforthosewhohaveneverreadanyWelshhistorybefore。ItisnottakenforgrantedthatthereaderknowseitherLatinorWelsh。
AfulleroutlinemaybereadinTheStoryofWales，inthe\"StoryoftheNations\"series；andastillfulleroneinTheWelshPeopleofRhysandBrynmorJones。OffairlysmallandcheapbooksinvariousperiodsImaymentionRhys’CelticBritain，OwenRhoscomyl’sFlameBearersofWelshHistory，HenryOwen’sGeraldtheWelshman，Bradley’sOwenGlendower，Newell’sWelshChurch，andReesProtestantNon—
conformityinWales。MoreelaborateandexpensivebooksareSeebohm’sVillageCommunityandTribalSysteminWales，Clark’sMedievalMilitaryArchitecture，Morris’WelshWarsofEdwardI。，Southall’sWalesandHerLanguage。Inwritinglocalhistory，A。N。
Palmer’sHistoryofWrexhamandcompanionvolumesaremodels。
Ifyouturntoalibrary，youwillfindmuchinformationaboutWalesinSocialEngland，theDictionaryofNationalBiography，thepublicationsoftheCymmrodorionandothersocieties。YouwillfindarticlesofgreatvalueandinterestoverthenamesofF。H。
Haverfield，J。W。Willis—Bund，EgertonPhillimore，theHonourableMrsBulkeleyOwen（GwenrhianGwynedd），HenryOwen，thelateDavidLewis，T。F。Tout，J。E。Lloyd，D。LleuferThomas，W。LlywelynWilliams，J。
ArthurPrice，J。H。Davies，J。Ballinger，EdwardOwen，HubertHall，HughWilliams，R。A。Roberts，A。W。Wade—Evans，E。A。Lewis。TheseareonlyafewoutofthemanywhoarenowworkingintherichandunexploredfieldofWelshhistory。IputdownthenamesonlyofthoseIhadtoconsultinwritingasmallbooklikethis。
ThesourcesaremostlyinLatinorWelsh。Manyvolumesofchronicles，charters，andhistoricalpoemshavebeenpublishedbytheGovernment，bytheCorporationofCardiff，byJ。GwenogvrynEvans，byH。deGreyBirch，andothers。But，sofar，wehavenothadtheinterestingchroniclesandpoemstranslatedintoEnglishastheyoughttobe，andpublishedinwelledited，nottooexpensivevolumes。
OWENEDWARDS
LINCOLNCOLLEGE，OXFORD。
CHAPTERI——WALES
Walesisarowofhills，risingbetweentheIrishSeaonthewestandtheEnglishplainsontheeast。Ifyoucomefromthewestalongthesea，orifyoucrosstheSevernortheDeefromtheeast，youwillseethatWalesisacountryallbyitself。Itrisesgrandlyandproudly。Ifyouareastranger，youwillthinkofitas\"Wales\"——astrangecountry；ifyouareWelsh，youwillthinkofitas\"Cymru\"——alandofbrothers。
ThegeologistwilltellyouhowWaleswasmade；thegeographerwilltellyouwhatitislikenow；thehistorianwilltellyouwhatitspeoplehavedoneandwhattheyare。Allthreewilltellyouthatitisaveryinterestingcountry。
TherocksofWalesareolderandharderthantherocksoftheplains；
andasyoutravelfromthesouthtothenorth，theolderandhardertheybecome。ThehighestmountainsofWales，andsomeofitshills，havecrestsoftheveryoldestandhardestrock——granite，porphyry，andbasalt；andtheserocksaregiventheirformbyfire。Butthegreaterpartofthecountryismadeofrocksformedbywater——stilltheoldestoftheirkind。Inthenorth—west，centre，andwest——abouttwo—thirdsofthewholecountry，——therocksarechieflyslateandshale；inthesouth—easttheyarechieflyoldredsandstone；inthenorth—east，butchieflyinthesouth，theyarelimestoneandcoal。
ItsrocksgiveWalesitsfamousscenery——itsruggedpeaks，itsromanticglens，itsrushingrivers。Theyarealsoitschiefwealth——
granite，slate，limestone，coal；andlodesofstillmorepreciousmetals——iron，lead，silver，andgold——runthroughthem。
ThehighestmountaininWalesisSnowdon，whichis3，570feetabovethelevelofthesea。Forevery300feetwegoup，thetemperaturebecomesonedegreecooler。Atabout1，000feetitbecomestoocoldforwheat；atabout1，500itbecomestoocoldforcorn；atabout2，000itistoocoldforcattle；mountainponiesgrazestillhigher；
thebleakupperslopesarelefttothesmallandvaluableWelshsheep。
Therearethreebeltsofsoilaroundthehills——arable，pasture，andsheep—run——oneabovetheother。Thearablelandformsaboutathirdofthecountry；itliesalongtheseaborder，ontheslopesabovetheDeeandtheSevern，andinthedeepvalleysoftheriverswhichpiercefarinland，——theSevern，Wye，Usk，Towy，Teivy，Dovey，Conway，andClwyd。Thepastureland，thelandofsmallmountainfarms，formsthemiddlethird；itisalandoftinyvalleysandsmallplains，everfosteredbythewarm，moistwestwind。Aboveit，theremainingthirdisstormysheep—run，widegreenslopesandwildmoors，steepglensandrockyheights。
Fromnorth—westtosouth—eastthelineofhighhillsruns。Inthenorth—westcorner，Snowdontowersamonganumberofheightsover3，000feet。Atitsfeet，tothenorth—west，theisleofAngleseylies。ThepeninsulaofLleyn，withacentralridgeofrock，andslopesofpasturelands，runstothesouth—west。Totheeast，beyondtheConway，lietheHiraethogmountains，withlowerheightsandwiderreaches；furthereastagain，overtheClwyd，arethestilllowerhillsofFlint。
Tothesouth，30milesasthecrowflies，overtheslatecountry，theBerwynsareseenclearly。Fromapeakamongthese——CaderVronwen（2，573feet），ortheAran（2，970feet），orCaderIdris（2，929feet）——
welookeastandsouth，overthehillyslopesoftheupperSeverncountry。
Another30milestothesouthrisesgreenPlinlimmon（2，469feet）；
fromitweseethehighmoorlandsofcentralWales，slopingtoCardiganBayonthewestandtothevalleyoftheSevern，nowalordlyEnglishriver，ontheeast。
FortymilessouththeBlackMountain（2，630feet）risesbeyondtheWye，andtheBreconBeacons（2，910feet）beyondtheUsk。WestofthesethehillsfadeawayintothebroadpeninsulaofDyved。
Southwardswelookoverhillsofcoalandirontothepleasantsea—
fringedplainofGwent。
Onthenorthandthewesttheseaisshallow；insomeplacesitisunder10fathomsfor10milesfromtheshore，andunder20fathomsfor20miles。Talesofdrownedlandsaretold——ofthesandsofLavan，ofthefeastofdrunkenSeithenyn，andofthebellsofAberdovey。Buttheseaisakindneighbour。Itssoft，warmwindsbathethehillswithlife；andthegreatsweepofthebigAtlanticwavesintotherivermouthshelpourcommerce。Holyhead，MilfordHaven，Swansea，Newport，Barry，andCardiff——nowoneofthechiefportsoftheworld——canwelcomethelargestvesselsafloat。Theherringisplentifulonthewestcoast，andtroutandsalmonintherivers。
CHAPTERII——THEWANDERINGNATIONS
Bylandandbysea，raceafterracehascometomakethehillsofWalesitshome。Oneracewouldbeshort，withdarkeyesandblackhair；anotherwouldbetall，withblueeyesandfairhair。Theycamefromdifferentcountriesandalongdifferentpaths，buteachracebroughtsomegoodwithit。Onebroughtskillintaminganimals，untilithadatlasttamedeventhepigandthebee；anotherbroughtirontoolstotaketheplaceofstoneones。Anotherbroughttheenergyofthechaseandwar，andanotheradelightinsailingashiporinbuildingafortress。
Onethingtheyhadincommon——theywandered，andtheywanderedtothewest。Fromthecoldwastesandthedarkforestsofthenorthandeast，theywereeverpushingwesttomoresunnylands。Asfarbackaswecansee，thegreatmigrationofnationstothewestwasgoingon。TheislandsofBritainwerethefurthestpointtheycouldreach；
forbeyondit，atthattime，nomanhaddaredtosailintotheunknownexpanseoftheoceanofthewest。IntheislandsofBritain，themountainsofWaleswereamongthemostdifficulttowin，anditwasonlythebravestandthehardiestthatcouldmaketheirhomeamongthem。
Thefirstracesthatcamewereshortanddark。Theycameintribes。
Theyhadtribalmarks，thepictureofananimalasarule；andtheyhadastrangefancythatthisanimalwastheirancestor。Itmaybethatthelocalnicknameswhicharestillremembered——suchas\"thepigsofAnglesey，\"\"thedogsofDenbigh，\"\"thecatsofRuthin，\"\"thecrowsofHarlech，\"\"thegadfliesofMawddwy\"——weretheproudtribetitlesoftheseearlypeople。Theirweaponsandtoolswerepolishedstone；theirhammersandhatchetsandadzes，theirlanceheadsandtheirarrowtips，wereofthehardestigneousrock——chippedandgroundwithpatientlabour。
Thepeoplewhocomefirsthavethebestchanceofstaying，ifonlytheyarewillingtolearn；hardyplantswillsoontaketheplaceoftenderplantsifleftalone。Theshortdarkpeoplearestillthemainpart，notonlyoftheWelsh，butoftheBritishpeople。Itistruethattheirlanguagehasdisappeared，exceptafewplace—names。
Butlanguagesarefarmorefleetingthanraces。Thelossofitslanguagedoesnotshowthataraceisdead；itonlyshowsthatitisveryanxioustochangeandlearn。Somelanguageseasilygiveplacetoothers，andwesaythatthepeoplewhospeaktheselanguagesaregoodlinguists，likeDanesandSlavs。Otherlanguagespersist，thosewhospeakthemareunwillingtospeakanynewlanguage，andthisisthereasonwhySpanishandEnglisharesowidespread。
Aftertheshortdarkracecameatallfair—hairedpeople。Theycameinfamiliesaswellasintribes。Theyhadironweaponsandtools，andtheshortdarkpeoplecouldnotkeepthematbaywiththeirbone—
tippedspearsandflint—headedarrows。Weknownothingaboutthestrugglebetweenthem。Butitmaybethatthefairystoriesweweretoldwhenchildrencomefromthosefar—offtimes。Ifafairymaidencamefromlakeormoundtoliveamongmen，shevanishedatonceiftouchedwithiron。Isthis，learnedmenhaveasked，adimmemoryofthevictoryofironoverstone？
ThenamegiventotheshortdarkmanisusuallyIberian；thenamegiventothetallfairmanwhofollowedhimisCelt。Thetwolearnttolivetogetherinthesamecountry。Theconquerorprobablylookeduponhimselfatfirstasthemasteroftheconquered，thenassimplybelongingtoasuperiorrace，butgraduallythedistinctionvanished。
ThelanguageremainedthelanguageoftheCelt；itiscalledanAryanlanguage，alanguageasnobleamonglanguagesastheAranisamongitshills。ItisstillspokeninWales，inBrittany，inIreland，intheHighlandsofScotland，andintheIsleofMan。ItwasalsospokeninCornwalltilltheeighteenthcentury；andYorkshiredalesmenstillcounttheirsheepinWelsh。EnglishisanotherAryantongue。
Themoremixedanationis，themorerichitslifeandthegreateritsfuture。Purityofbloodisnotathingtoboastof，andnogreatandprogressivenationcomesfromonebreedofmen。Someraceshavemoreimaginationthanothers，orafinerfeelingforbeauty；othershavemoreenergyandpracticalwisdom。Thebestnationshaveboth；
andtheyhaveboth，probably，becausemanyraceshavebeenblendedintheirmaking。ThereishardlyaparishinWalesinwhichtherearenotdifferenttypesoffacesanddifferentkindsofcharacter。
Thewanderingofnationshasneverreallystopped。TheCeltwasfollowedbyhiscousins——theAngleandtheSaxon。These，again，werefollowedbyracesstillmorecloselyrelatedtothem——theNormansandtheDanesandtheFlemings。TheyhavealllefttheirmarkonWalesandontheWelshcharacter。
Themigrationisstillgoingon。TracethehistoryofanuplandWelshparish，andyouwillfindthat，inasurprisinglyshorttime，theoldfamilies，highandlow，havegivenplacetonewcomers。LookintothetrainswhichcarryemigrantsfromHullorLondontoLiverpoolontheirwaywest——theyhavetheblueeyesandyellowhairofthosewhocametwothousandyearsago。Butthiscountryisnolongertheirgoal，thegreatcontinentofAmericahasbeendiscoveredbeyond。FitsoflongingforwanderingcomeovertheWelshperiodically，astheycameovertheDanes——causedbyscarcityoffoodanddensityofpopulation，orbyasenseofoppressionandayearningforfreedom。Anemptystomachsometimes，andsometimesafieryimagination，sentacrowdofadventurerstonewlands。Anditisthusthateverylivingnationiseverrenewingitsyouth。
CHAPTERIII——ROME
Itisnotaspiritofadventureanddaringalonethatmakesanation。
Romerosetosaythatitmusthavethespiritoforderandlawtoo。
Itroseinthepathofthenations；itbuiltthewallsofitsempire，guardedbythecampsofitslegions，rightacrossit。Forfourhundredyearsthewanderingofnationsceased；thenationsstopped——
andtheybegantotilltheground，toliveincities，toformstates。
Thehushofthispeacedidnotlast，butthememoryofitremainedinthelifeofeverynationthatfeltit。Unityandlawtemperedfreedomandchange。
ThenameofRomewasmadeknown，andmadeterrible，throughWalesbyagreatbattlefoughtontheeasternslopesoftheBerwyn。TheRomanshadconqueredthelandsbeyondtheSevern，andhadplacedthemselvesfirmlynearthebanksofthatriveratGlevumandUriconium。GlevumisourGloucester，anditsstreetsarestillastheRomanarchitectplannedthem。UriconiumistheburntandburiedcitybeyondShrewsbury；theskullsfoundinit，anditsimplementsofindustry，andthetoysofitschildren，youcanseeintheShrewsburyMuseum。
TheBritishleaderinthegreatbattlewasCaratacus，thegeneralwhohadfoughttheRomansstepbystepuntilhehadcometothebordersofWales，tosummonthewarlikeSilurestosavetheircountry。Wedonotknowthesiteofthegreatbattle，thoughtheRomanhistorianTacitusgivesagraphicdescriptionofit。TheBritonswereonahillsideslopingdowntoariver，andtheRomanscouldonlyattacktheminfront。Theenemywadedtheriver，however，andscaledthewallonitsfurtherbank；andinthefiercelanceandswordfightthehostofCaratacuslosttheday。Hefled，butwasafterwardshandedovertotheRomans，andtakentoRome，togracethetriumphalprocessionofthevictors。
ThebattleonlyrousedtheSilurestoamorefierceresistance，anditcosttheRomansmanylives，andittookthemmanyyears，tobreaktheirpower。ThestrangestsightthatmettheinvaderswasinAnglesey，aftertheyhadcrossedtheMenaionhorsesoronrafts。
Thedruidstriedtoterrifythembytheritesoftheirreligion。Thedarkgroves，thewomendressedinblackandcarryingflamingtorches，theagedpriests——thesightparalysedtheRomansoldiers，butonlyforamoment。
Vespasian——itwashewhosenthissonTitustobesiegeJerusalem——
becameemperorin69。Thewarwascarriedonwithgreatenergy，andby78Waleswasentirelyconquered。
ThenAgricola，awiseruler，came。ThepeaceofRomewasleftintheland；andtheWelshmantooktheRoman，notwillinglyatfirst，ashisteacherandrulerinsteadofashisenemy。Townswerebuilt；thetwoChestersorCaerlleons（CastraLegionum），ontheDeeandtheUsk，beingthemostimportantfromamilitarypointofview。Roadsweremade；twoalongthenorthandsouthcoasts，toCarmarthenandCarnarvon；twoothersranparallelalongthelengthofWales，toconnecttheirends。Ontheseroadstownsrose；andsome，likeCaerwent，wereself—governingcommunitiesofprosperouspeople。
Agricultureflourished；theWelshwordsfor\"plough\"and\"cheese\"are\"aradr\"and\"caws\"——theLatinaratrumandcaseus。Themineralwealthofthecountrywasdiscovered；andcopperminesandleadmines，silverminesandgoldmines，wereworked。The\"aur\"（gold）and\"arian\"（silver）and\"plwm\"（lead）oftheWelshmanaretheLatinaurum，argentum，andplumbum。
TheRomansallowedtheWelshfamiliesandtribestoremainasbefore，andtoberuledbytheirownkingsandchiefs。Buttheykeptthedefenceofthecountry——themanningofthegreatwallinthenorthofRomanBritain，thegarrisoningofthelegiontowns，andtheholdingofthewesternsea——intheirownhand。
GraduallythepowerofRomebegantowane，anditsholdondistantcountrieslikeBritainbegantorelax。Thewanderingnationsweregatheringonitseasternandnorthernborders，anditswallsandlegionsatlastgaveway。Ithadnotbeenakindmothertothenationsithadconquered——inwarithadbeencruel，andinpeaceithadbeenselfishandstern。Thelustofrulebecamestrongerasitsarmbecameweaker。Thedegradationofslaveryandtheheavyhandofthetax—gathererwereextendingeventoWales。Thebarbarianinvaderfoundtheeffeminate，luxuriousempireaneasyprey。In410AlaricandhishostofGothsappearedbeforethecityofRomeitself；andahordeofbarbarians，thirstingforbloodandspoil，surgedintoit。
Thefallofthegreatcitywasashocktothewholeworld；theendoftheworldmustbenear，forhowcoulditstandwithoutRome？Jeromecouldhardlysobthestrangenews：\"Rome，whichenslavedthewholeworld，hasitselfbeentaken。\"
RomehadtakentheyokeofChrist；andmanysaidthatitfellbecauseithadspurnedthegodsthathadgivenitvictory。ThreeyearsafterAlarichadsackedit，AugustinewroteabooktoprovethatitwasnotthecityofGodthathadfallen；andthattheheathengodscouldneitherhavebuiltRomeintheirlovenordestroyeditintheiranger。Hethendescribestheriseofthereal\"CityofGod，\"inthemidstofwhichistheGodofjusticeandmercy，and\"sheshallnotbemoved。\"
CHAPTERIV——THENAMEOFCHRIST
ThenameofChristhadbeenheardinBritainduringtheperiodofRomanrule，butwedonotknowwhofirstsoundedit。Therearemanybeautifullegends——thatthegreatapostleoftheGentileshimselfcametoBritain；thatJosephofArimathea，havingbeenplacedbytheJewsinanopenboat，atthemercyofwindandwave，landedinBritain；thatsomeofthecaptivestakentoRomewithCaratacusbroughtbackthetidingsofgreatjoy。
WeknowthatthenameofChrist，between200and300yearsafterHisdeath，waswellknowninBritain，andthatchurcheshadbeenbuiltforHisworship。Between300and400wehaveanorganisedchurchandasettledcreed。Between400and500therewassearchingofheartandcreed，andheresies——asuresignthatthepeoplewerealivetoreligion。Between500and600therewasatranslationoftheBiblefromHebrewandGreekintothebetter—knownLatin。ThewholeofWalesbecomesChristian；andprobablyStDavidconvertedthelastpagans，andbuilthischurchamongthem。
Between450and500astreamofpaganTeutonsflowedovertheeastofBritain，andtheBritishChurchwasseparatedfromtheRomanChurch。
By664BritishandRomanmissionarieshadconvertedtheEnglish；andthetwoChurchesofRomeandBritain，onceunited，werefacetofaceagain。Buttheyhadgrownindifferentways，andrefusedtoknoweachother。TheirEastercameondifferentdays；theydidnotbaptizeinthesameway；thetonsurewasdifferent——acrescentontheforeheadoftheBritishmonk，andacrownonthepateoftheRomanmonk。IntheRomanChurchtherewasrigidunityandsystem；intheBritishChurchtherewasmuchroomforself—government。ThenewlyconvertedEnglishchosetheRomanway，becausetheyweretoldthatStPeter，whoseseeRomewas，heldthekeysofheaven。Between700and800theWelshgraduallygaveuptheirreligiousindependence，andjoinedtheRomanChurch。
Buttherewasanotherdispute。WerethefouroldWelshbishoprics——
Bangor，StAsaph，StDavid’s，Llandaff——tobesubjecttotheEnglisharchbishopofCanterbury，ortohaveanarchbishopricoftheirownatStDavid’s？By1200theWelshbishopricsweresubjecttotheEnglisharchbishop，andGiraldusCambrensiscametoolatetosavethem。
ButthroughallthesedisputestheChurchwasgainingstrength。
Churcheswerebeingbuilteverywhere。Upto700theywerecalledafterthenameoftheirfounder；between700and1000theyweregenerallydedicatedtothearchangelMichael——thereareseveralLlanvihangels{1}inWales；after1000newchurcheswerededicatedtoMary，theMotherofChrist——wehavemanyLlanvairs。{2}
Timesofcivilstrife，orofpopularindifference，cameoverandoveragain；andtheoldpaganismtriedtoreassertitself。AndtimeaftertimethenameofChristwassoundedagainbymenwhothoughttheyhadseenHim。InthetwelfthcenturytheCistercianmonkcametosaythattheworldwasbad，thatprayersavedthesoul，andthatlabourwasnoble。{3}HewasfollowedbytheFranciscanfriar，whosaidthatdeedsofmercyandloveshouldbeaddedtoprayer，thatChristhadbeenapoorman，andthatmenshouldhelpeachother，notonlyinsavingsouls，butinhealingsicknessandrelievingpain。InthefifteenthcenturytheLollardcametosaythattheChurchwastoorich，andthatithadbecomeblindtothetruth，andWalterBrutesaidthatmenweretobejustifiedbyfaithinChrist，notbytheworshipofimagesorbythemeritofsaints。InthesixteenthcenturycametheProtestant，andtheswayofRomeoverWalescametoanend；BishopMorgantranslatedtheBibleintoWelsh，andJohnPenryyearnedforthepreachingoftheGospelinWales。TheJesuitfollowed，callinghimselfbythenameofJesus，totrytowinthecountrybackagaintoRome。RobertJonestoiledandschemed，andsomelaiddowntheirlives。ThePuritancameintheseventeenthcenturytodemandsimpleworship，andMorganLloydthoughtthatthesecondadventofChristwasathand。TheRevivalistcameintheeighteenthcentury，and，inthenameofChrist，arousedthepeopleofWalestoanewlifeofthought。
Afterallthis，youwillbesurprisedtolearnthatmanyoftheoldgodsstillremaininWales，andmuchoftheoldpaganworship。Whodropsapinintoasacredwell，orleavesatinyragonabushcloseby，andthenwishesforsomething？Ayoungmaideninthetwentiethcentury，whosacrificestoawellheathengod。UntilquiterecentlymenthoughtthatFfynnonGybi，andFfynnonElian，andFfynnonDdwynwen，hadinthemapowerwhichcouldcurseandbless，ruinandsave。
LudoftheSilverHandwasthegodofflocksandships。HiscavesareinDyvedstill，andhiswasthetempleonLudgateHillinLondon。
Merlinwasagodofknowledge；hecouldforetellevents。Ceridwenwasthegoddessofwisdom；shedistilledwisdom—givingdropsinacauldron。Gwydioncreatedabeautifulgirlfromflowers，\"fromredrose，andyellowbroom，andwhiteanemony。\"IamnotquitesurewhatCoildid，butIhaveheardchildrensingingthehistoryof\"oldKingCole。\"OlwenalsowalkedthroughWalesinheathentimes，anditissaidthatthreewhiteflowersrosebehindherwherevershehadputherfoot。
CHAPTERV——THEWELSHKINGS
ThespiritofRomeremained，thoughRomeitselfhadfallen。AndWelshkingsrosetotaketheplaceoftheRomanruler，tryingtoforcethetribesofWales——ofdifferentracesandtongues——tobecomeonepeople。
ThechiefRomanruler，atanyrateduringthelaterwarsagainsttheinvaders，wascalledDuxBritanniae，\"therulerofBritain。\"Itbecametheaimoftheablestkingstorestorethepowerofthisofficer，andtocarryonhiswork，toruleanddefendaunitedcountry。AndIwilltellyoubrieflyhowthekingsruledanddefendedWalesformorethanfivehundredyears——howMaelgwntriedtouniteit，howRhodritriedtopreventtheattacksofSaxonandDane，howHowelgaveitlaws，andhowGriffithtriedtodefenditagainstEngland。
Between400and450RomeleftWalestolookafteritself。Anablefamily，calledtheHouseofCunedda，tookthepoweroftheDuxBritanniae，andtheytranslatedthetitleintoGwledig——\"therulerofagwlad（country）。\"OfthisfamilyMaelgwnGwyneddisthemostfamous。ItwashisworktotrytouniteallthesmallerkingsorchiefsofWalesunderhisownpoweras\"theislanddragon。\"Itwasadifficultthingtopersuadethem；theyallwantedtobeindependent。
AlegendshowsthatMaelgwntriedguileaswellasforce。ThekingsmethimatAberdovey，andtheyallsatintheirroyalchairsonthesands。AndMaelgwnsaid：\"Lethimbekingoverallwhocansitlongestonhischairasthetidecomesin。\"Buthehadmadehisownchairofbirds’wings，anditfloatederectwhenalltheotherchairshadbeenthrowndown。BeforeMaelgwndiedoftheyellowplaguein547，hisstrongarmhadmadeWalesoneunitedcountry，andhadmadeeverycornerofitChristian。
Thenewwaveofnations，comingonassurelyasthetide，begantobeatagainstWales。ThePictscamefromthenorthernpartsofBritain，andTeutonictribesswarmedacrosstheeasternsea。TheAnglescametotheHumber，andspreadovertheplainsofthenorthandthemidlandsofRomanBritain；theSaxonscametotheThames，andwontheplainsandthedownsofthesouth—east。In577theSaxons，afterthebattleofDeorham，piercedtothewesternseaatthemouthoftheSevern；theycreptupalongthevalleyoftheSevern，burningthegreatRomantowns。BeforetheyreachedChesterandtheDee，however，theyweredefeatedatthebattleofFethanleain584。ButtheAnglessoonappeared，fromthenorth；andaftertheirvictoryatChesterin613，theywontheplainsrighttotheIrishSea。
Waleswasnowsurroundedonthelandsidebyapeoplewhospokestrangelanguages，andwhoworshippeddifferentgods，fortheAnglesandtheSaxonswereheathens。Fromtheseaalsoitwasopentoattack。SometimestheIrishcame。ButthemostfearedofallweretheDanes，whosesuddenappearanceandquickmovementsanddesperateonslaughtsweretheterroroftheage。The\"blackDanes\"camefromthefordsofNorway，the\"whiteDanes\"fromtheplainsofSwedenandDenmark。TheDanessettledonthesouthcoast：TenbyisaDanishname。Offa，thekingoftheMercianAngles，tooktherichlandsbetweentheSevernandtheWye；butOffa’sDyke（ClawddOffa）isprobablytheworkofsomeearlierpeoplewhosehistoryhasbeenlost。
Itwasonlybyincessantfightingthattheenemycouldbekeptatbay。
Ofallthekingswhotriedtodefendhiscountryagainsttheenemieswhichnowstoodroundit，thegreatestisRhodri，calledRhodriMawr—
—\"theGreat。\"From844to877，bybattlesonseaandland，hebrokethespellofDanishandSaxonvictories；andhismightandwisdomenabledhimtoleadhiscountryinthosedarkdays。LikeAlfredofWessex，wholivedatthesametimeandfacedthesametask，hestemmedthetorrentofDanishinvasionandbeatthesea—roversontheirownelement。LikeAlfred，heleftwarlikechildrenandgrandchildren。OneofthegrandsonswasHoweltheGood，whoputthelawsofWalesdowninabook。
WalesandEnglandwerenow，bothofthemintheirownway，tryingtobecomeonecountry。Itwasseenbymanythatstrengthandpeacewerebetterthandivisionandwar。InEngland，theEarlsofMerciaandWessextriedtoriseintosupremepower。InWalesLlywelynabSeisyll，victoriousinmanybattlesandwishingforpeace，madethecountryrichandhappy。Still，whenhediedin1022，theprincessaidtheywouldnotobeyanotherover—king。
ButthelongshipsfullofDanescameagain；theAnglescrossedtheSevern：warandmiserytooktheplaceofpeaceandplenty。
Griffith，thesonofLlywelyn，cametorenewhisfather’swork。InthebattleofRhydyGroesontheSevern，in1039，hedrovetheMerciansback；inthebattleofPencader，in1041，hecrushedtheopponentsofWelshunity；in1044hedefeatedthesea—roversatAberTowy。AtthesametimeHarold，EarlofWessex，wasmakinghimselfkingofEngland。AwarbrokeoutbetweenGriffithandHarold；and，duringit，in1063，thegreatWelshking——\"theheadandtheshieldoftheBritons\"——wasslainbytraitors。
SofarIhavetoldyouaboutafew，onlythegreatest，kingsoftheHouseofCunedda。IknowthatyouarewonderingwhereArthurcomesin。IamnotquitesurethatArthureverreallylived，exceptinthemindofmanyages。HeisthespiritofRomanrule，thetrueDuxBritanniae，andhehasallthegreatnessandabilityofalltheraceofCunedda。Ihavebeenshownmountainsunderwhichhesleeps，withhisknightsaroundhim，waitingforthetimewhenhiscountryistobedelivered。LetushopethatwhatArthurrepresents——courageandwisdom，loveofcountryandloveofright——livesintheheartsofhispeople。
CHAPTERVI——THELAWSOFHOWEL
ThetwoideaswhichruledWaleswere——theloveoforderandtheloveofindependence。Thedangerofthefirstisoppression；thedangersoftheotherareanarchyandweakness。Waleswassometimesunited，underaMaelgwnoraRhodri，andtheprincesobeyedthem；oftener，perhaps，theprincesofthevariouspartsruledintheirownway。
TheinternallifeofWalesisbestseeninthelawsofHoweltheGood。HowelwasthegrandsonofRhodri；and，about950，hecalledfourmenfromeachdistricttoHendyGwyn（Whitland）tostatethelawsofthecountry。Twelveofthewisestputthelawtogether；andthemostlearnedscribeinWaleswroteit。
Itwasthoughtthatthereshouldbeonekingoverthewholepeople，butitwasveryrarelythateverypartofWalesobeyedoneking。Thecountrywasdividedintosmallerkingdoms。InmanywaysGwyneddwasthemostpowerful。Itwasveryeasytodefend；foritwasmadeupoftheislandofMon（Anglesey），thepromontoryofLleyn，andthemountainmassofSnowdon。ItssteepsidewasthustowardsEngland，anditscornlandsandpasturesonthefurtherside。ItwasalsothehomeofthefamilyofCunedda，fromMaelgwntothelastLlywelyn。
PowyswastheBerwyncountry。CeredigionwasthewesternslopeofthePlinlimmonrange；theeasternslopeshadmanysmaller，butverywarlike，districts。DeheubarthcontainedthepleasantgladesandgreatforestsoftheTowycountry。Dyvedwasthepeninsulatothewest；thesouthernslopesoftheBeaconswereMorgannwgandGwent。
HoweltheGoodfoundthatthelawsofthevariouspartsdifferedindetails，andhegavedifferentversionstothenorth，thesouth—west，andthesouth—east。Butthelawandlifeofthewholepeople，ifweonlylookatimportantfeatures，areone。Severalcommotesmadeacantrev，manycantrevsmadeakingdom，manykingdomsmadeWales。
Ineachcommotethereweretwokindsofpeople——thefreeorhigh—
born，andthelow—bornorserfs。ThesemayhavebeentheconqueringCeltandtheconqueredIberian。Itwasverydifficultforthoseinthelowerclasstorisetothehigher；but，afterpassingthroughthestormsofathousandyears，theolddarklineofseparationwasquitelostsightof。
Thefreefamilylivedinagreathouse——inthehendre（\"oldhomestead\"）inwinter，andinthemountainhavoty（\"summerhouse\"）insummer。Thesidesofthehouseweremadeofgiantforesttrees，theirboughsmeetingatthetopandsupportingtherooftree。Thefireburntinthemiddleofthehall。Roundthewallsthefamilybedswerearranged。Thefamilywasgovernedbytheheadofthehousehold（penteulu），whosewordwaslaw。
Thehighestfamilyinthelandwasthatoftheking。Inhishallalltooktheirownplaces，hischiefofthehousehold，hispriest，hissteward，hisfalconer，hisjudge，hisbard，hischiefhuntsman，hismediciner，andothers。ThechiefroyalresidenceswereAberffrawinMon，MathravalinPowys，andDynevorinDeheubarth。
OldWelshlawwasveryunlikethelawweobeynow。Icannottellyoumuchaboutitinashortbooklikethis，butitisworthnoticingthatitwasveryhumane。Wedonotgetinitthesavageandvindictivepunishmentswegetinsomelaws。IgiveyousomeextractsfromtheoldlawsoftheWelsh。
Thekingwastobehonoured。AccordingtothelawsofGwynedd，ifanyonedidviolenceinhispresencehehadtopayagreatfine——ahundredcows，andawhitebullwithredears，foreverycantrevthekingruled；arodofgoldaslongasthekinghimself，andasthickashislittlefinger；andaplateofgold，asbroadastheking’sface，andasthickasaploughman’snail。
Thejudge，whetheroftheking’scourtorofthecourtsofhissubjects，wastobelearned，just，andwise。Thus，accordingtothelawsofDyved，wasaninexperiencedjudgetobepreparedforhisgreatoffice；hewastoremaininthecourtintheking’scompany，tolistentothepleasofjudgeswhocamefromthecountry，tolearnthelawsandcustomsthatwereinforce，especiallythethreemaindivisionsoflaw，andthevalueofalltameanimals，andofallwildbeastsandbirdsthatwereofusetomen。Hewastolistenespeciallytothedifficultcasesthatwerebroughttothecourt，tobesolvedbythewisdomoftheking。Whenhehadlivedthusforayear，hewastobebroughttothechurchbythechaplain；andthere，overtherelicsandbeforethealtar，heswore，inthepresenceofthegreatofficersoftheking’scourt，thathewouldneverknowinglydoinjustice，formoneyorloveorhate。Heisthenbroughttotheking，andtheofficerstellthekingthathehastakenthesolemnoath。Thenthekingacceptshimasajudge，andgiveshimhisplace。
Whenheleaves，thekinggiveshimagoldenchessboard，andthequeengoldrings，andtheseheisnevertopartwith。
Iwilltellyouaboutoneotherofficer——thefalconer。Falconrywasthefavouritepastimeofthekingsandnoblesofthetime；indeed，everybodyfounditveryexcitingtowatchthelongstruggleintheairbetweenthetrainedfalconanditsprey，aseachbirdtriedeveryskillofwingandtalonthatitknew。Thefalconerwastodrinkverysparinglyintheking’shall，forfearthefalconsmightsuffer；andhislodgingwastobeintheking’sbarn，notintheking’shall，lestthesmokefromthegreatfire—placeshoulddimthefalcon’ssight。
CHAPTERVII——THENORMANS
OnthedeathofGriffithapLlywelyn，manyprincestriedtobecomesupreme。BleddynofPowys，agoodandmercifulprince，becamethemostimportant。
InJanuary1070，whenthesnowlaythickonthemountains，William，theNormanConqueror，appearedatChesterwithanarmy。HehaddefeatedandkilledHarold，theconquerorofGriffithapLlywelyn，in1066；hehadcrushedthepoweroftheMercianalliesofBleddyn；hehadstruckterrorintothewildnorth，andEnglandlayathisfeet。
HeturnedbackfromChester，butheplacedonthebordersanumberofbaronswhoweretoconquerWales，ashehadconqueredEngland。Theyhadameasureofhisability，ofhisenergy，andofhisambition。
ThetwogreatNormantraitswerewisdomandcourage；buttheonewasoftenmerecunning，andtheotherbrutalferocity。ButnooneliketheNormanhadyetappearedinWales——noonewithavisionsoclear，orwithsohardagrip。Ahard，worldly，tenacious，calculatingracetheywere；andtheyturnedtheirfacesresolutelytowardsWales。
FromEngland，Walescanbeenteredandattackedalongthreevalleys——
alongtheDee，theSevern，andtheWye。AtChester，HughofAvranches，called\"TheWolf，\"placedhimself。FromitswallshecouldlookoverandcovettheWelshhills，ashecouldhavelookedovertheBretonhillsfromAvranches。Helovedwarandthechase：
hedespisedindustry，hecarednotforreligion；hewasamanofstrongpassions，buthewasgenerous，andherespectedworthofcharacter。Oneofhisfollowers，Robert，hadallhisvicesandfewofhisvirtues。ItwashewhoextendedthedominionsoftheEarlofChesteralongthenorthcoasttotheClwyd，wherehebuiltacastleatRhuddlan；andthenceontothevalleyoftheConway，wherehebuiltacastleatDeganwy。ThecrueltyofRobertshockedeventheNormansofhistime。HeevensetfootinAnglesey，whichlookedtemptinglynearfromDeganwy，andbuiltacastleatAberlleiniog。
AtShrewsbury，wheretheSevern，afterleavingthemountainsofWales，turnstothesouth，RogerofMontgomerywasplaced，withhiswifeMabel，anenergeticlittlewoman，hatedandfearedbyall。
Rogerhimself，whileeverreadytofight，preferredtogetwhathewantedbypersuasion；hewasnotlesscruelthanHughofChester，buthewaslessfondofwar。HeandhissonspushedtheirwayuptheSevern，andbuiltacastleatMontgomery。
ToHereford，ontheWye，WilliamFitz—Osberncame。Hewastheablest，perhaps，ofallthefollowersoftheConqueror。HeenteredWales；hesawitfromtheWyetothesea，andhethoughtitwasnotlargeenough，andthatitwastoofarfromthepoliticallifeofthetime。SohewentbacktoNormandy，buthelefthissonsWilliamandRogerbehindhim。Williamhadhisfather’swisdom。Rogerhadhisfather’srecklessnessinaction；herebelledagainsthisownking，andfoundhimselfinprison。Thekingsenthim，onthedayofChrist’sPassion，arobeofsilkandrarestermine。Thecagedbaronmadearoaringfire，andcasttherobeintoit。\"BythelightofGod，\"saidWilliamtheConqueror，forthatwashiswickedoath，\"heshallneverleavehisprison。\"
ButanotherNorman，BernardofNeufmarche，cametotakehisplace。
HebuilthiscastleatBrecon，anddefeatedandkilledRees，theKingofDeheubarth；and，withgreatenergy，hetookpossessionoftheuppervalleysoftheWyeandtheUsk。
FurthersouthWilliamtheConquerorhimselfcametoCardiff，andpossiblybuiltacastle。TheNormanconquestofthesouthcoastofWaleswasexceedinglyrapid，andcastleaftercastlerosetomarkthenewvictoriousadvances——Coety，Cenfig，Neath，Kidwelly，Pembroke，Newport，Cilgeran。
Sofar，theNormanadvancehasbeenamostquickone。Inlessthantwenty—fiveyearsfromtheappearanceoftheConqueroratChester，thewholecountryhadbeenoverrunexceptthemountainsofGwyneddandtheforestsoftheDeheubarth。Thissuccessiseasilyexplained。
Foronething，theNormanshadtrained，professionalsoldiers，whowerewellhorsedandwellarmed。InapitchedbattlethehastilycollectedWelshlevies，unusedtoregularbattleandverylightlyarmed，hadnochance。
Again，theNormanneverreceded。Hewaswillingtostopoccasionally，inordertobidehistime；butheclungtenaciouslytoeverymilehehadwon。Hisskillasacastlebuilderwasasstrikingashisprowessinbattleorhiscautiouswisdomincouncil。Hetookpossessionofanoldfortifiedpost，orhastilyconstructedoneofturfandtimber；buthesoonturneditintoacastleofstone。AtthattimetheWelshhadnoknowledgeofsieges；andtheirimpetuousvalourwasofnouseagainstthenewcastles。
Again，theWelshoppositionwasnotonlynotorganised，butweakenedbyinternalstrife。WhiletheNormanwaswinningvalleyaftervalley，theWelshprincesweretryingtodecidebytheissueofbattlewhowastobechief。Bleddynwasslainin1075；andhisnephewsandcousinstriedtorulethecountry。Amongthese，Trahaiarnwasasoldierofabilityandenergy，andarulerofrealgenius。ButhewastherivaloftheexiledprincesoftheHouseofCunedda，andhefounditdifficulttobendSnowdonandtheValeofTowytohiswill。Twooftheexilesmethim，probablynearsomeofthecairnsinthevalleyoftheTeivy；andthere，inthebattleofMynyddCarn，fiercelyfoughtthroughtheduskintoamoonlightnightin1079，Trahaiarnfell。ItlookedasifnoleadercouldriseinWalestofightaNormanarmyortotakeaNormancastle。
CHAPTERVIII——GRIFFITHAPCONANANDGRIFFITHAPREES
InthebattleofMynyddCarn，ayoungchiefledtheshiningshieldsofthemenofGwynedd。HewasGriffith，thesonofaprinceofthelineofCuneddaandofasea—rover’sdaughter。Hewasmightyoflimb，fairandstraighttosee，withtheblueeyesandflaxenhairoftherulingCelt。Inbattle，hewasfulloffuryandpassion；inpeace，hewasjustandwise。Hispeoplesawatfirstthathecouldfightabattle；thentheyfoundhecouldruleacountry。AnditwashethatwastosaytotheNorman：\"Thusfarshaltthoucome，andnofurther。\"
WhenBleddyndiedin1075，GriffithcametoGwynedd，andfoundthathisfather’slandswereundernewrulers。RobertofRhuddlanandTrahaiarnofArwystliweremightyfoes；butGriffithdrovebothofthemback；and，byhisprowessandsuccessinbattle，brokethespellofconquestwhichkeptGwyneddinbonds。Buthisenemiesattackedhimagainfromallsides；and，whileHughtheWolfandRobertofRhuddlanwerelayingGwyneddwaste，TrahaiarnandGriffithmetatthehard—foughtbattleofBronyrErw。Griffithlosttheday，andagainbecameasea—rover。HesailedtoDyved，andtherehemetRees，theKingofDeheubarth，whoalsowasofthelineofCunedda，andhadbeendrivenfromhislandbytheNormans。Thetwochiefsjoined，andtheycrushedTrahaiarnatMynyddCarn。ThentheyturnedagainsttheNormans。
Reessoonfellinbattle，andlefttwochildren，NestandGriffith。
ThebeautyofNestandthegeniusofReesapGriffithfillanimportantpageinthehistoryoftheircountry。NestbecamethemotheroftheconquerorsofIreland；ReesbecamethegreatestofallthekingsofSouthWales。
TheNormansfoundthattheWelshhadtakenheart。Oftheiropponents，theyfearedthree：GriffithapConan，OwenofPowys，andGriffithapRees。ThekingsofEngland，thetwosonsoftheConqueror——red，brutalWilliamandcool，treacherousHenry——hadtocometohelptheirbarons。
GriffithapConanhadalonglifeofstrifeandsuccess。InhisstrugglewithHughtheWolf，hewasonceinTheWolf’sprison，andmorethanoncehehadtofleetothesea。But，backedupbytheliberty—lovingsonsofSnowdonandbyhissea—rovingkinsmen，hemadeGwyneddstrongandprosperous。HedrovetheNormansfromAnglesey；
heattackedandkilledRobertofRhuddlan；hesawtheredKingofEnglandhimselfforcedbystormandraintobeataretreatfromSnowdon。Hewaslovedbyhispeopleduringhisyouthofadventureandbattle，andduringhisoldageofsafecounselandloveofpeace。
HiswifeAngharadandhissonOwenlivewithhiminthememoryofhiscountry。Whenhedied，in1137，itwassaidthathehadsavedhispeople，hadruledthemjustly，andhadgiventhempeace。
IntheSeverncountrytheprincesofPowyswerefightingagainsttheNormansalso，especiallyagainstthefamilyofMontgomery。ThesonsofBleddyn——Cadogan，Iorwerth，andMeredith——weredrivingtheinvadersfromthevalleyoftheSevern，andfromDyved，defeatingtheirarmiesinbattle，andstormingtheircastles。Sometimestheywouldmakeallianceswiththem，anddefytheKingofEngland。Butitisdifficulttofolloweachofthem。Thehistoryofoneofthem，OwenapCadogan，islikearomance。Hewasbraveandhandsome，inlovewithNest，andaveryfirebrandinpolitics。ThearmyofHenryI。wastoostrongforhim，andhehadtosubmit。HethenbecamethefriendoftheKingofEngland。ItwastheaimoftheprincesofPowystobefree，notonlyfromtheNorman，butalsofromGriffithofGwyneddandGriffithofDeheubarth。Theywereanableandversatilefamily；nobleandbasedeeds，revoltingcrimesandsweetpoems，comeinthestirringstoryoftheirlives。
WhatGriffithdidinthenorth，andthesonsofBleddynintheeast，GriffithapReesdidinthesouth；heshowedthattheNormanarmycouldbebeateninbattle，andthataNormancastlecouldbetakenbyassault。Afterhisfather’sdeathhespentmuchofhisyouthinexileorinhiding：sometimeswefindhiminIreland，sometimesinthecourtofGriffithapConan，sometimeswithhissisterNest——nowthewifeofGerald，thecustodianofPembrokeCastle。Buthehadoneaimeverbeforehim——torecoverhisfather’skingdomandtomakehispeoplefree。Castleaftercastlerose——atSwansea，Carmarthen，Llandovery，Cenarth，Aberystwyth——towarnhimthattheholdoftheNormanonthelandwastightening。HecametotheforestsoftheTowy；hispeopleralliedroundhim，andhispowerextendedfromtheTowytotheTeivy，andfromtheTeivytotheDovey。Hiswife，theheroicGwenllian——whodiedleadingherhusband’sarmyagainsttheNormans——wasGriffithapConan’sdaughter。ThegreatfinalbattlebetweenGriffithandtheNormanswasfoughtatCardiganin1136，inwhichthegreatprincewonamemorablevictoryoverthestrongestarmytheNormanscouldputinthefield。In1137hedied，andtheysaidofhimthathehadshownhispeoplewhattheyoughttodo，andthathehadgiventhemstrengthtodoit。
TheworkofGriffithapConanandGriffithapReeswasthis：theysetboundstotheNormanConquest，andsavedDeheubarthandGwyneddfromthesternruleofthealien。But，thoughtheNormanwasnotallowedtobringhisstonecastleandcruellaw，whatgoodhebroughtwithhimwaswelcomed。ThepietyoftheNorman，hisintellectualcuriosity，andhisspiritofadventure，conqueredinWelshdistrictswherehiscoatofmailandhiscastlewerenotseen。
CHAPTERIX——OWENGWYNEDDANDTHELORDREES
ThemenwhoopposedtheNormansleftablesuccessors——OwenGwyneddfollowedhisfather，GriffithapConan；theLordReesfollowedhisfatherGriffithapRees；andinPowysthesonsofBleddynwerefollowedbythecastlebuilderHowel，andbythepoetOwenCyveiliog。
OwenGwyneddruledfrom1137to1169；theLordReesfrom1137to1197。Theagewas，inmanyrespects，agreatone。
Itwas，ofcourse，anageofwar。Upto1154，duringthereignofStephen，theEnglishbaronswerefightingagainsteachother，andthekinghadverylittlepoweroverthem。ThemostimportantNormanbaronsinWalesweretheEarlsofChesterinthevalleyoftheDee，theMortimersontheupperWye，theBraosesontheupperUsk，andtheClaresinthesouth。Theircastleswereacontinualmenacetothecountrytheyhadsofarfailedtoconquer，andtheLordReeswasgladtogetKidwelly，andOwenGwyneddtogetMoldandRhuddlan。
Itwas，onthewhole，anageofunity。ItwasthechiefaimofOwenGwyneddtobetheallyoftheLordRees；andinthishesucceeded，thoughhisbrotherCadwaladr，inhisdesireforCeredigion，hadkilledRees’brother，toOwen’sinfinitesorrow。TheprincesofPowys，MadocandOwenCyveiliog，wereinthesamealliancealso，andtheywerehelpedintheirstrugglewiththeNormans。Unitywasnevermorenecessary。HenryII。broughtgreatarmiesintoWales。OncehecamealongthenorthcoasttoRhuddlan。AtanothertimehetriedtocrosstheBerwyn，butwasbeatenbackbygreatstorms。HadhereachedtheupperDee，hewouldhavefoundtheunitedforcesoftheLordRees，OwenCyveiliog，andOwenGwyneddatCorwen。Therearemanystirringepisodesinthesewars：thefightatConsilt，whenHenryII。nearlylosthislife；thescatteringofhistentsontheBerwynbyastormthatseemedtobethefuryoffiends；therecklessexposureoflifeinstormingawallorintheshockofbattle。ButtheNormanbroughtnewcrueltyintowar：HenryII。tookouttheeyesofyoungchildrenbecausetheirfathershadrevoltedagainsthim；andWilliamdeBraoseinvitedagreatnumberofWelshchiefstoafeastinhiscastleatAbergavenny，andtheremurderedthemall。
Itisarelieftoturntoanotherfeatureoftheage：itwasanageofgreatmen。OwenGwyneddwasprobablythegreatest。Hedislikedwar，buthewasanablegeneral；hemadeHenryII。retirewithoutgreatlossoflifetohisownarmy。Hewasathoughtfulprince，ofalovingnatureandhighideals，andhiscourtwasthehomeofpietyandculture。HeismorelikeourownidealofaprincethananyoftheotherprincesoftheMiddleAges。TheLordReeswasnotlesswise，andhislifeislesssorrowfulandmorebrilliant。Healsowasasgreatasastatesmanashewasasageneral；andhemadehispeacewiththeEnglishkinginordertomakehiscountryquietandrich。
OwenCyveiliogwasplacedinamoredifficultpositionthaneitherofhisallies；hewasnearertoveryambitiousNormanbarons。Hewasgreatasawarrior；oftenhadhiswhitesteedbeenseenleadingtherushofbattle。Hewasgreaterasastatesman：friendandfoesaidthatOwenwaswise；andhewasgreaterstillasapoet。
Theagewasanageofpoetry。AgenerationofgreatWelshpoetsfoundanequalwelcomeinthecourtsofGwynedd，Powys，andDeheubarth；andeventheNormanbaronsofMorgannwgbegantofeelthecharmofWelshlegendandsong；RobertofGloucesterwasagreatpatronoflearning。OneofthechiefeventsoftheperiodwasLordRees’greatEisteddvodatCardiganin1176。
Itwasanageofnewideals。TheCrusadeswerepreachedinWales；
thegraveofChristwasheldbyacruelunbeliever，anditwasthedutyofasoldiertorescueit。Itappealedtoaninbornloveofwar，andmanyWelshmenwerewillingtogo。Itdidgoodbyteachingthemthat，infighting，theywerenottofightforthemselves。ItwasinPowysthatfeudsweremostbitter。Ayoungwarriortoldapreacher，whowastryingtopersuadehimtotakethecross：\"Iwillnotgountil，withthislance，Ishallhaveavengedmylord’sdeath。\"
Thelanceimmediatelybecameshiveredinhishand。Thelanceonceusedforblindfeudswasgraduallyconsecratedtotheserviceofideals——ofpatriotismorofreligion。
TheageofOwenGwyneddandtheLordReesandOwenCyveiliogbroughtahigheridealstill。IftheCrusadermadewarsacred，themonkmadelabournoble。Thechiefaimofthemonk，itistrue，wastosavehissoul。Hethoughttheworldwasverybad，asindeeditwas；andhethoughthecouldbestsavehisownsoulbyretiringtosomeremotespot，tolivealifeofprayer。Buthealsolivedalifeoflabour；
hebecamethebestgardener，thebestfarmer，andthebestshepherdoftheMiddleAges。Greatmonasterieswerebuiltforhim，andgreattractsoflandweregivenhim，bythosewhowereanxiousthatheshouldprayfortheirsouls。ThemonkwhocametoWaleswastheCistercian。ThemonasteriesofTintern，Margam，andNeathwerebuiltbyNormanbarons；andStrataFlorida，ValleCrucis，andBasingwerkshowedthattheWelshprincesalsowelcomedthemonks。
Better，then，thanthebrilliantwarswerethepoetsandthegreatEisteddvod。Betterstill，perhaps，weretheorchardsandtheflocksofthepeacefulmonks。
CHAPTERX——LLYWELYNTHEGREAT
OnthedeathoftheLordRees，oneofthegrandsonsofOwenGwyneddbecomesthecentralfigureinWelshhistory。LlywelyntheGreatroseintopowerin1194，andreigneduntil1240——alongreign，andinmanywaysthemostimportantofallthereignsoftheWelshprinces。
Llywelyn’sfirsttaskwastobecomesolerulerinGwynedd。ThesonsofOwenGwyneddhaddividedthestrongGwyneddleftthembytheirfather，andtheirnoblesandpriestscouldnotdecidewhichofthesonswastobesupreme。Iorwerth，thepoetHowel，David，Maelgwn，Rhodri，triedtogetGwynedd，orportionsofit。Eventually，DavidI。becameking；butsoonastrongoppositionplacedLlywelyn，theablesonofIorwerth，onthethrone。Unclesandcousinsshowedsomejealousy；butthegrowingpowerofLlywelynsoonmadethemobeyhimwithgraduallydiminishingenvy。
HisnexttaskwastoattachtheotherprincesofWalestohim，nowthattheLordReesandOwenCyveiliogweredead。Tobeginwith，hehadtodealwiththeastuteGwenwynwyn，thesonofOwenCyveiliog；
andhehadtobeforcedtosubmit。HethenturnedtothemanysonsandgrandsonsoftheLordRees——MaelgwnandReestheHoarseespecially。TheycalledJohn，KingofEngland，intoWales；buttheysoonfoundthatLlywelynwasabettermasterthanJohnandhisbarons。GraduallyLlywelynestablishedacouncilofchiefs——partlyaboardofconciliation，andpartlyanexecutivebody。Itwasnothingnew；butitwasastrikingpictureofthewayinwhichLlywelynmeanttojointheprincesintooneorganisedpoliticalbody。
HisthirdtaskwastobegintouniteNormanbaronsandWelshchiefsunderhisownrule。Hehadtobeginintheoldway，byusingforce；
andRanulphofChesterandtheClarestrembledforthesafetyoftheircastles。Hethenofferedpoliticalalliance；andsomeoftheNormanfamiliesofthegreatestimportanceinthereignofJohn——theEarlofChester，thefamilyofBraose，andtheMarshallsofPembroke—
—becamehisallies。HisotherstepwastouniteWelshandNormanfamiliesbymarriage。HehimselfmarriedadaughterofKingJohn，andhegavehisowndaughtersinmarriagetoaBraoseandaMortimer。
Itisthroughthedark—hairedGladys，whomarriedRalphMortimer，thatthekingsofEnglandcantracetheirdescentfromtheHouseofCunedda。
Llywelyn’slastgreattaskwastomakerelationsbetweenEnglandandWalesrelationsofpeaceandamity。Duringhislongreign，hesawthreekingsonthethroneofEngland——thecrusaderRichard，theableJohn，andtheworthlessandmeanHenryIII。ItwaswithJohnthathehadmosttodo，thekingwhoseoriginalityandviceshavepuzzledandshockedsomanyhistorians。JohnhelpedhimtocrushGwenwynwyn，thenhelpedthejealousWelshprincestocheckthegrowthofhispower。Llywelynsawthatitwashispolicy，aslongasJohnwasalive，tojointheEnglishbarons。TheywerethentryingtoforceMagnaCartaupontheKing，thatgreatdocumentwhichpreventedJohnfrominterferingwiththeprivilegesofhisbarons。InthatdocumentJohnpromises，inthreeclauses，thathewillobservetherightsofWelshmenandthelawofWales。
WhenJohndiedin1216，andhisyoungsonHenrysucceededhim，thepolicyofEnglandwasguidedbyWilliamMarshallEarlofPembroke。
WilliamMarshallwasoneoftheministersofHenryII。，andbyhismarriagewiththedaughterofStrongbow，theconquerorofIreland，hehadbecomeEarlofPembroke。ItwaswithhimthatLlywelynhadnowtodeal。HewastoostronginPembroketobeattacked，buthisverypresencemadeiteasierforLlywelyntoretaintheallegianceofthechiefswhowouldhavebeenindangerfromtheNormanbaronsifLlywelyn’sprotectionweretakenaway。In1219thegreatWilliamMarshalldied；andchangesinEnglishpoliticsforcedhissonsintoanalliancewithLlywelyn。
Llywelyn’stitleofGreatisgivenhimbyhisNormanandEnglishcontemporaries。Hewasgreatasageneral；hisdetectionoftroublebeforethestormbroke，hisinstantdeterminationandrapidityofmovements，hisever—readymunitionsforbattleandsiege，madehislatercampaignsalwayssuccessful。Hefeltthathewascarryingonwarinhisowncountry；sohiswarswerenotwarsofdevastation，butthecrushingofarmiesandtherazingofcastles。
Hetookaninterestinthethreegreatagentsinthecivilisationofthetime——thebard，themonk，andthefriar。Thebardwasaswelcomeaseverathiscourt；themonk，welcomedbyOwenGwyneddbefore，wasgivenanotherhomeatAberConway。Llywelynextendedhiswelcometothefriar，andhewasgivenahomeatLlanVaesinAnglesey，ontheshoresoftheMenai。Thefriarbroughtahigheridealthanthatofthemonk；hisaimwassalvation，notbyprayerinthesolitudeofamountainglen，butbyservicewheremenwerethickesttogether——eveninstreetsmadefoulbyvice，andhauntedbyleprosy。OftheMendicantOrders，theFranciscanswerethebestknowninWales；and，ofallOrdersofthatday，itwastheywhosympathisedmostdeeplywiththesorrowsofmen。Anditwasthiswhich，alittlelateron，broughtthemsomuchintopolitics。
