Toearth，then，letusassignthecubicalform；forearthisthe
mostimmoveableofthefourandthemostplasticofallbodies，and
thatwhichhasthemoststablebasesmustofnecessitybeofsucha
nature。Now，ofthetriangleswhichweassumedatfirst，thatwhich
hastwoequalsidesisbynaturemorefirmlybasedthanthatwhichhas
unequalsides；andofthecompoundfigureswhichareformedoutof
either，theplaneequilateralquadranglehasnecessarily，amore
stablebasisthantheequilateraltriangle，bothinthewholeandin
theparts。Wherefore，inassigningthisfiguretoearth，weadhere
toprobability；andtowaterweassignthatoneoftheremainingforms
whichistheleastmoveable；andthemostmoveableofthemtofire；
andtoairthatwhichisintermediate。Alsoweassignthesmallest
bodytofire，andthegreatesttowater，andtheintermediatein
sizetoair；and，again，theacutestbodytofire，andthenextin
acutenessto，air，andthethirdtowater。Ofalltheseelements，that
whichhasthefewestbasesmustnecessarilybethemostmoveable，
foritmustbetheacutestandmostpenetratingineveryway，andalso
thelightestasbeingcomposedofthesmallestnumberofsimilar
particles：andthesecondbodyhassimilarpropertiesinasecond
degree，andthethirdbodyinthethirddegree。Letitbeagreed，
then，bothaccordingtostrictreasonandaccordingtoprobability，
thatthepyramidisthesolidwhichistheoriginalelementandseed
offire；andletusassigntheelementwhichwasnextintheorder
ofgenerationtoair，andthethirdtowater。Wemustimagineall
thesetobesosmallthatnosingleparticleofanyofthefour
kindsisseenbyusonaccountoftheirsmallness：butwhenmanyof
themarecollectedtogethertheiraggregatesareseen。Andthe
ratiosoftheirnumbers，motions，andotherproperties，everywhere
God，asfarasnecessityallowedorgaveconsent，hasexactly
perfected，andharmonisedindueproportion。
Fromallthatwehavejustbeensayingabouttheelementsor
kinds，themostprobableconclusionisasfollows：—earth，whenmeeting
withfireanddissolvedbyitssharpness，whetherthedissolutiontake
placeinthefireitselforperhapsinsomemassofairorwater，is
bornehitherandthither，untilitsparts，meetingtogetherand
mutuallyharmonising，againbecomeearth；fortheycannevertake
anyotherform。Butwater，whendividedbyfireorbyair，on
reforming，maybecomeonepartfireandtwopartsair；andasingle
volumeofairdividedbecomestwooffire。Again，whenasmallbodyof
fireiscontainedinalargerbodyofairorwaterorearth，and
botharemoving，andthefirestrugglingisovercomeandbrokenup，
thentwovolumesoffireformonevolumeofair；andwhenairis
overcomeandcutupintosmallpieces，twoandahalfpartsofairare
condensedintoonepartofwater。Letusconsiderthematterin
anotherway。Whenoneoftheotherelementsisfasteneduponby
fire，andiscutbythesharpnessofitsanglesandsides，it
coalesceswiththefire，andthenceasestobecutbythemanylonger。
Fornoelementwhichisoneandthesamewithitselfcanbechangedby
orchangeanotherofthesamekindandinthesamestate。Butso
longasintheprocessoftransitiontheweakerisfightingagainst
thestronger，thedissolutioncontinues。Again，whenafewsmall
particles，enclosedinmanylargerones，areinprocessof
decompositionandextinction，theyonlyceasefromtheirtendencyto
extinctionwhentheyconsenttopassintotheconqueringnature，and
firebecomesairandairwater。Butifbodiesofanotherkindgoand
attackthem[i。e。thesmallparticles]，thelattercontinuetobe
dissolveduntil，beingcompletelyforcedbackanddispersed，theymake
theirescapetotheirownkindred，orelse，beingovercomeand
assimilatedtotheconqueringpower，theyremainwheretheyareand
dwellwiththeirvictors，andfrombeingmanybecomeone。Andowingto
theseaffections，allthingsarechangingtheirplace，forbythe
motionofthereceivingvesselthebulkofeachclassisdistributed
intoitsproperplace；butthosethingswhichbecomeunlikethemselves
andlikeotherthings，arehurriedbytheshakingintotheplaceof
thethingstowhichtheygrowlike。
Nowallunmixedandprimarybodiesareproducedbysuchcausesas
these。Astothesubordinatespecieswhichareincludedinthegreater
kinds，theyaretobeattributedtothevarietiesinthestructure
ofthetwooriginaltriangles。Foreitherstructuredidnotoriginally
producethetriangleofonesizeonly，butsomelargerandsome
smaller，andthereareasmanysizesastherearespeciesofthe
fourelements。Hencewhentheyaremingledwiththemselvesandwith
oneanotherthereisanendlessvarietyofthem，whichthosewhowould
arriveattheprobabletruthofnatureoughtdulytoconsider。
Unlessapersoncomestoanunderstandingaboutthenatureand
conditionsofrestandmotion，hewillmeetwithmanydifficulties
inthediscussionwhichfollows。Somethinghasbeensaidofthis
matteralready，andsomethingmoreremainstobesaid，whichis，
thatmotionneverexistsinwhatisuniform。Fortoconceivethat
anythingcanbemovedwithoutamoverishardorindeedimpossible，
andequallyimpossibletoconceivethattherecanbeamoverunless
therebesomethingwhichcanbemoved—motioncannotexistwhereeither
ofthesearewanting，andforthesetobeuniformisimpossible；
whereforewemustassignresttouniformityandmotiontothewant
ofuniformity。Nowinequalityisthecauseofthenaturewhichis
wantinginuniformity；andofthiswehavealreadydescribedthe
origin。Buttherestillremainsthefurtherpoint—whythingswhen
dividedaftertheirkindsdonotceasetopassthroughoneanotherand
tochangetheirplace—whichwewillnowproceedtoexplain。Inthe
revolutionoftheuniversearecomprehendedallthefourelements，and
thisbeingcircularandhavingatendencytocometogether，compresses
everythingandwillnotallowanyplacetobeleftvoid。Wherefore，
also，fireaboveallthingspenetrateseverywhere，andairnext，as
beingnextinrarityoftheelements；andthetwootherelementsin
likemannerpenetrateaccordingtotheirdegreesofrarity。For
thosethingswhicharecomposedofthelargestparticleshavethe
largestvoidleftintheircompositions，andthosewhichare
composedofthesmallestparticleshavetheleast。Andthecontraction
causedbythecompressionthruststhesmallerparticlesintothe
intersticesofthelarger。Andthus，whenthesmallpartsareplaced
sidebysidewiththelarger，andthelesserdividethegreaterand
thegreaterunitethelesser，alltheelementsareborneupanddown
andhitherandthithertowardstheirownplaces；forthechangeinthe
sizeofeachchangesitspositioninspace。Andthesecauses
generateaninequalitywhichisalwaysmaintained，andis
continuallycreatingaperpetualmotionoftheelementsinalltime。
Inthenextplacewehavetoconsiderthattherearediverskindsof
fire。Thereare，forexample，first，flame；andsecondly，those
emanationsofflamewhichdonotburnbutonlygivelighttotheeyes；
thirdly，theremainsoffire，whichareseeninred—hotembersafter
theflamehasbeenextinguished。Therearesimilardifferencesin
theair；ofwhichthebrightestpartiscalledtheaether，andthe
mostturbidsortmistanddarkness；andtherearevariousother
namelesskindswhicharisefromtheinequalityofthetriangles。
Water，again，admitsinthefirstplaceofadivisionintotwo
kinds；theoneliquidandtheotherfusile。Theliquidkindis
composedofthesmallandunequalparticlesofwater；andmovesitself
andismovedbyotherbodiesowingtothewantofuniformityandthe
shapeofitsparticles；whereasthefusilekind，beingformedoflarge
anduniformparticles，ismorestablethantheother，andisheavyand
compactbyreasonofitsuniformity。Butwhenfiregetsinand
dissolvestheparticlesanddestroystheuniformity，ithasgreater
mobility，andbecomingfluidisthrustforthbytheneighbouringair
andspreadsupontheearth；andthisdissolutionofthesolidmasses
iscalledmelting，andtheirspreadingoutupontheearthflowing。
Again，whenthefiregoesoutofthefusilesubstance，itdoesnot
passintovacuum，butintotheneighbouringair；andtheairwhich
isdisplacedforcestogethertheliquidandstillmoveablemassinto
theplacewhichwasoccupiedbythefire，andunitesitwithitself。
Thuscompressedthemassresumesitsequability，andisagainatunity
withitself，becausethefirewhichwastheauthoroftheinequality
hasretreated；andthisdepartureofthefireiscalledcooling，and
thecomingtogetherwhichfollowsuponitistermedcongealment。Of
allthekindstermedfusile，thatwhichisthedensestandisformed
outofthefinestandmostuniformpartsisthatmostprecious
possessioncalledgold，whichishardenedbyfiltrationthrough
rock；thisisuniqueinkind，andhasbothaglitteringandayellow
colour。Ashootofgold，whichissodenseastobeveryhard，and
takesablackcolour，istermedadamant。Thereisalsoanotherkind
whichhaspartsnearlylikegold，andofwhichthereareseveral
species；itisdenserthangold，anditcontainsasmallandfine
portionofearth，andisthereforeharder，yetalsolighterbecauseof
thegreatintersticeswhichithaswithinitself；andthis
substance，whichisoneofthebrightanddenserkindsofwater，
whensolidifiediscalledcopper。Thereisanalloyofearthmingled
withit，which，whenthetwopartsgrowoldandaredisunited，shows
itselfseparatelyandiscalledrust。Theremainingphenomenaofthe
samekindtherewillbenodifficultyinreasoningoutbythemethod
ofprobabilities。Amanmaysometimessetasidemeditationsabout
eternalthings，andforrecreationturntoconsiderthetruthsof
generationwhichareprobableonly；hewillthusgainapleasurenot
toberepentedof，andsecureforhimselfwhilehelivesawiseand
moderatepastime。Letusgrantourselvesthisindulgence，andgo
throughtheprobabilitiesrelatingtothesamesubjectswhichfollow
nextinorder。
Waterwhichismingledwithfire，somuchasisfineandliquid
（beingsocalledbyreasonofitsmotionandthewayinwhichitrolls
alongtheground），andsoft，becauseitsbasesgivewayareless
stablethanthoseofearth，whenseparatedfromfireandairand
isolated，becomesmoreuniform，andbytheirretirementis
compressedintoitself；andifthecondensationbeverygreat，the
waterabovetheearthbecomeshail，butontheearth，ice；andthat
whichiscongealedinalessdegreeandisonlyhalfsolid，whenabove
theearthiscalledsnow，andwhenupontheearth，andcondensed
fromdew，hoarfrost。Then，again，therearethenumerouskindsof
waterwhichhavebeenmingledwithoneanother，andaredistilled
throughplantswhichgrowintheearth；andthiswholeclassiscalled
bythenameofjuicesorsaps。Theunequaladmixtureofthesefluids
createsavarietyofspecies；mostofthemarenameless，butfour
whichareofafierynatureareclearlydistinguishedandhave
names。Firstthereiswine，whichwarmsthesoulaswellasthe
body：secondly，thereistheoilynature，whichissmoothand
dividesthevisualray，andforthisreasonisbrightandshining
andofaglisteningappearance，includingpitch，thejuiceofthe
castorberry，oilitself，andotherthingsofalikekind：thirdly，
thereistheclassofsubstanceswhichexpandthecontractedparts
ofthemouth，untiltheyreturntotheirnaturalstate，andby
reasonofthispropertycreatesweetness；—theseareincludedunderthe
generalnameofhoney：and，lastly，thereisafrothynature，which
differsfromalljuices，havingaburningqualitywhichdissolves
theflesh；itiscalledopos（avegetableacid）。
Astothekindsofearth，thatwhichisfilteredthroughwater
passesintostoneinthefollowingmanner：—Thewaterwhichmixes
withtheearthandisbrokenupintheprocesschangesintoair，and
takingthisformmountsintoitsownplace。Butasthereisno
surroundingvacuumitthrustsawaytheneighbouringair，andthis
beingrenderedheavy，and，whenitisdisplaced，havingbeenpoured
aroundthemassofearth，forciblycompressesitanddrivesitinto
thevacantspacewhencethenewairhadcomeup；andtheearthwhen
compressedbytheairintoanindissolubleunionwithwaterbecomes
rock。Thefairersortisthatwhichismadeupofequalandsimilar
partsandistransparent；thatwhichhastheoppositequalitiesis
inferior。Butwhenallthewaterypartissuddenlydrawnoutby
fire，amorebrittlesubstanceisformed，towhichwegivethenameof
pottery。Sometimesalsomoisturemayremain，andtheearthwhichhas
beenfusedbyfirebecomes，whencool，acertainstoneofablack
colour。Alikeseparationofthewaterwhichhadbeencopiously
mingledwiththemmayoccurintwosubstancescomposedoffiner
particlesofearthandofabrinynature；outofeitherofthemahalf
solidbodyisthenformed，solubleinwater—theone，soda，whichis
usedforpurgingawayoilandearth，andother，salt，whichharmonizes
sowellincombinationspleasingtothepalate，andis，asthelaw
testifies，asubstancedeartothegods。Thecompoundsofearthand
waterarenotsolublebywater，butbyfireonly，andforthis
reason：—Neitherfirenorairmeltmassesofearth；fortheir
particles，beingsmallerthantheintersticesinitsstructure，have
plentyofroomtomovewithoutforcingtheirway，andsotheyleave
theearthunmeltedandundissolved；butparticlesofwater，which
arelarger，forceapassage，anddissolveandmelttheearth。
Whereforeearthwhennotconsolidatedbyforceisdissolvedbywater
only；whenconsolidated，bynothingbutfire；forthisistheonly
bodywhichcanfindanentrance。Thecohesionofwateragain，when
verystrong，isdissolvedbyfireonly—whenweaker，theneitherbyair
orfire—theformerenteringtheinterstices，andthelatter
penetratingeventhetriangles。Butnothingcandissolveair，when
stronglycondensed，whichdoesnotreachtheelementsortriangles；or
ifnotstronglycondensed，thenonlyfirecandissolveit。Asto
bodiescomposedofearthandwater，whilethewateroccupiesthe
vacantintersticesoftheearthinthemwhicharecompressedbyforce，
theparticlesofwaterwhichapproachthemfromwithout，findingno
entrance，flowaroundtheentiremassandleaveitundissolved；but
theparticlesoffire，enteringintotheintersticesofthewater，
dotothewaterwhatwaterdoestoearthandfiretoair，andare
thesolecausesofthecompoundbodyofearthandwaterliquefyingand
becomingfluid。Nowthesebodiesareoftwokinds；someofthem，
suchasglassandthefusiblesortofstones，havelesswaterthan
theyhaveearth；ontheotherhand，substancesofthenatureofwax
andincensehavemoreofwaterenteringintotheircomposition。
Ihavethusshownthevariousclassesofbodiesastheyare
diversifiedbytheirformsandcombinationsandchangesintoone
another，andnowImustendeavourtosetforththeiraffectionsand
thecausesofthem。Inthefirstplace，thebodieswhichIhavebeen
describingarenecessarilyobjectsofsense。Butwehavenotyet
consideredtheoriginofflesh，orwhatbelongstoflesh，orofthat
partofthesoulwhichismortal。Andthesethingscannotbe
adequatelyexplainedwithoutalsoexplainingtheaffectionswhich
areconcernedwithsensation，northelatterwithouttheformer：and
yettoexplainthemtogetherishardlypossible；forwhichreasonwe
mustassumefirstoneortheotherandafterwardsexaminethenature
ofourhypothesis。Inorder，then，thattheaffectionsmayfollow
regularlyaftertheelements，letuspresupposetheexistenceof
bodyandsoul。
First，letusenquirewhatwemeanbysayingthatfireishot；and
aboutthiswemayreasonfromthedividingorcuttingpowerwhichit
exercisesonourbodies。Weallofusfeelthatfireissharp；and
wemayfurtherconsiderthefinenessofthesides，andthesharpness
oftheangles，andthesmallnessoftheparticles，andtheswiftness
ofthemotion—allthismakestheactionoffireviolentandsharp，
sothatitcutswhateveritmeets。Andwemustnotforgetthatthe
originalfigureoffire[i。e。thepyramid]，morethananyother
form，hasadividingpowerwhichcutsourbodiesintosmallpieces
（Kepmatizei），andthusnaturallyproducesthataffectionwhichwecall
heat；andhencetheoriginofthename（thepmos，Kepma）。Now，the
oppositeofthisissufficientlymanifest；neverthelesswewillnot
failtodescribeit。Forthelargerparticlesofmoisturewhich
surroundthebody，enteringinanddrivingoutthelesser，butnot
beingabletotaketheirplaces，compressthemoistprincipleinus；
andthisfrombeingunequalanddisturbed，isforcedbythemintoa
stateofrest，whichisduetoequabilityandcompression。But
thingswhicharecontractedcontrarytonaturearebynatureatwar，
andforcethemselvesapart；andtothiswarandconvulsionthenameof
shiveringandtremblingisgiven；andthewholeaffectionandthe
causeoftheaffectionarebothtermedcold。Thatiscalledhardto
whichourfleshyields，andsoftwhichyieldstoourflesh；andthings
arealsotermedhardandsoftrelativelytooneanother。Thatwhich
yieldshasasmallbase；butthatwhichrestsonquadrangularbasesis
firmlyposedandbelongstotheclasswhichoffersthegreatest
resistance；sotoodoesthatwhichisthemostcompactandtherefore
mostrepellent。Thenatureofthelightandtheheavywillbebest
understoodwhenexaminedinconnexionwithournotionsofaboveand
below；foritisquiteamistaketosupposethattheuniverseis
partedintotworegions，separatefromandoppositetoeachother，the
onealowertowhichallthingstendwhichhaveanybulk，andanupper
towhichthingsonlyascendagainsttheirwill。Forastheuniverseis
intheformofasphere，alltheextremities，beingequidistantfrom
thecentre，areequallyextremities，andthecentre，whichis
equidistantfromthem，isequallytoberegardedastheoppositeof
themall。Suchbeingthenatureoftheworld，whenapersonsays
thatanyofthesepointsisaboveorbelow，mayhenotbejustly
chargedwithusinganimproperexpression？Forthecentreoftheworld
cannotberightlycalledeitheraboveorbelow，butisthecentre
andnothingelse；andthecircumferenceisnotthecentre，andhas
innoonepartofitselfadifferentrelationtothecentrefrom
whatithasinanyoftheoppositeparts。Indeed，whenitisin
everydirectionsimilar，howcanonerightlygivetoitnameswhich
implyopposition？Foriftherewereanysolidbodyinequipoiseatthe
centreoftheuniverse，therewouldbenothingtodrawittothis
extremeratherthantothat，fortheyareallperfectlysimilar；and
ifapersonweretogoroundtheworldinacircle，hewouldoften，
whenstandingattheantipodesofhisformerposition，speakofthe
samepointasaboveandbelow；for，asIwassayingjustnow，tospeak
ofthewholewhichisintheformofaglobeashavingonepart
aboveandanotherbelowisnotlikeasensibleman。
Thereasonwhythesenamesareused，andthecircumstancesunder
whichtheyareordinarilyappliedbyustothedivisionofthe
heavens，maybeelucidatedbythefollowingsupposition：—ifaperson
weretostandinthatpartoftheuniversewhichistheappointed
placeoffire，andwherethereisthegreatmassoffiretowhich
fierybodiesgather—if，Isay，heweretoascendthither，and，
havingthepowertodothis，weretoabstractparticlesoffireand
puttheminscalesandweighthem，andthen，raisingthebalance，were
todrawthefirebyforcetowardstheuncongenialelementofthe
air，itwouldbeveryevidentthathecouldcompelthesmallermass
morereadilythanthelarger；forwhentwothingsaresimultaneously
raisedbyoneandthesamepower，thesmallerbodymustnecessarily
yieldtothesuperiorpowerwithlessreluctancethanthelarger；
andthelargerbodyiscalledheavyandsaidtotenddownwards，and
thesmallerbodyiscalledlightandsaidtotendupwards。Andwe
maydetectourselveswhoareupontheearthdoingpreciselythesame
thing。Forweofseparateearthynatures，andsometimesearth
itself，anddrawthemintotheuncongenialelementofairbyforceand
contrarytonature，bothclingingtotheirkindredelements。But
thatwhichissmalleryieldstotheimpulsegivenbyustowardsthe
dissimilarelementmoreeasilythanthelarger；andsowecallthe
formerlight，andtheplacetowardswhichitisimpelledwecall
above，andthecontrarystateandplacewecallheavyandbelow
respectively。Nowtherelationsofthesemustnecessarilyvary，
becausetheprincipalmassesofthedifferentelementsholdopposite
positions；forthatwhichislight，heavy，beloworaboveinoneplace
willbefoundtobeandbecomecontraryandtransverseandeveryway
diverseinrelationtothatwhichislight，heavy，beloworabovein
anoppositeplace。Andaboutallofthemthishastobe
considered：—thatthetendencyofeachtowardsitskindredelement
makesthebodywhichismovedheavy，andtheplacetowardswhichthe
motiontendsbelow，butthingswhichhaveanoppositetendencywecall
byanoppositename。Sucharethecauseswhichweassigntothese
phenomena。Astothesmoothandtherough，anyonewhoseesthemcan
explainthereasonofthemtoanother。Forroughnessishardness
mingledwithirregularity，andsmoothnessisproducedbythejoint
effectofuniformityanddensity。
Themostimportantoftheaffectionswhichconcernthewholebody
remainstobeconsidered—thatis，thecauseofpleasureandpainin
theperceptionsofwhichIhavebeenspeaking，andinallotherthings
whichareperceivedbysensethroughthepartsofthebody，andhave
bothpainsandpleasuresattendantonthem。Letusimaginethe
causesofeveryaffection，whetherofsenseornot，tobeofthe
followingnature，rememberingthatwehavealreadydistinguished
betweenthenaturewhichiseasyandwhichishardtomove；forthis
isthedirectioninwhichwemusthuntthepreywhichwemeantotake。
Abodywhichisofanaturetobeeasilymoved，onreceivingan
impressionhoweverslight，spreadsabroadthemotioninacircle，
thepartscommunicatingwitheachother，untilatlast，reachingthe
principleofmind，theyannouncethequalityoftheagent。Buta
bodyoftheoppositekind，beingimmobile，andnotextendingtothe
surroundingregion，merelyreceivestheimpression，anddoesnot
stiranyoftheneighbouringparts；andsincethepartsdonot
distributetheoriginalimpressiontootherparts，ithasnoeffectof
motiononthewholeanimal，andthereforeproducesnoeffectonthe
patient。Thisistrueofthebonesandhairandothermoreearthy
partsofthehumanbody；whereaswhatwassaidaboverelatesmainlyto
sightandhearing，becausetheyhaveinthemthegreatestamountof
fireandair。Nowwemustconceiveofpleasureandpaininthisway。
Animpressionproducedinuscontrarytonatureandviolent，if
sudden，ispainful；and，again，thesuddenreturntonatureis
pleasant；butagentleandgradualreturnisimperceptibleandvice
versa。Ontheotherhandtheimpressionofsensewhichismost
easilyproducedismostreadilyfelt，butisnotaccompaniedby
Pleasureorpain；such，forexample，aretheaffectionsofthe
sight，which，aswesaidabove，isabodynaturallyunitingwithour
bodyintheday—time；forcuttingsandburningsandother
affectionswhichhappentothesightdonotgivepain，noristhere
pleasurewhenthesightreturnstoitsnaturalstate；butthe
sensationsaredearestandstrongestaccordingtothemannerin
whichtheeyeisaffectedbytheobject，anditselfstrikesand
touchesit；thereisnoviolenceeitherinthecontractionordilation
oftheeye。Butbodiesformedoflargerparticlesyieldtotheagent
onlywithastruggle；andthentheyimparttheirmotionstothe
wholeandcausepleasureandpain—painwhenalienatedfromtheir
naturalconditions，andpleasurewhenrestoredtothem。Thingswhich
experiencegradualwithdrawingsandemptyingsoftheirnature，and
greatandsuddenreplenishments，failtoperceivetheemptying，but
aresensibleofthereplenishment；andsotheyoccasionnopain，but
thegreatestpleasure，tothemortalpartofthesoul，asis
manifestinthecaseofperfumes。Butthingswhicharechangedallof
asudden，andonlygraduallyandwithdifficultyreturntotheirown
nature，haveeffectsineverywayoppositetotheformer，asis
evidentinthecaseofburningsandcuttingsofthebody。
Thushavewediscussedthegeneralaffectionsofthewholebody，and
thenamesoftheagentswhichproducethem。AndnowIwillendeavour
tospeakoftheaffectionsofparticularparts，andthecausesand
agentsofthem，asfarasIamable。Inthefirstplaceletusset
forthwhatwasomittedwhenwewerespeakingofjuices，concerningthe
affectionspeculiartothetongue。Thesetoo，likemostoftheother
affections，appeartobecausedbycertaincontractionsanddilations，
buttheyhavebesidesmoreofroughnessandsmoothnessthanisfound
inotheraffections；forwheneverearthyparticlesenterintothe
smallveinswhicharethetestingofthetongue，reachingtothe
heart，andfalluponthemoist，delicateportionsofflesh—when，as
theyaredissolved，theycontractanddryupthelittleveins，they
areastringentiftheyarerougher，butifnotsorough，thenonly
harsh。Thoseofthemwhichareofanabstergentnature，andpurge
thewholesurfaceofthetongue，iftheydoitinexcess，andso
encroachastoconsumesomepartofthefleshitself，likepotash
andsoda，arealltermedbitter。Buttheparticleswhicharedeficient
inthealkalinequality，andwhichcleanseonlymoderately，arecalled
salt，andhavingnobitternessorroughness，areregardedasrather
agreeablethanotherwise。Bodieswhichshareinandaremadesmoothby
theheatofthemouth，andwhichareinflamed，andagaininturn
inflamethatwhichheatsthem，andwhicharesolightthattheyare
carriedupwardstothesensationsofthehead，andcutallthat
comesintheirway，byreasonofthesequalitiesinthem，areall
termedpungent。Butwhenthesesameparticles，refinedby
putrefaction，enterintothenarrowveins，andaredulyproportioned
totheparticlesofearthandairwhicharethere，theysetthem
whirlingaboutoneanother，andwhiletheyareinawhirlcausethem
todashagainstandenterintooneanother，andsoformhollows
surroundingtheparticlesthatenter—whichwateryvesselsofair
（forafilmofmoisture，sometimesearthy，sometimespure，isspread
aroundtheair）arehollowspheresofwater；andthoseofthemwhich
arepure，aretransparent，andarecalledbubbles，whilethose
composedoftheearthyliquid，whichisinastateofgeneral
agitationandeffervescence，aresaidtoboilorferment—ofall
theseaffectionsthecauseistermedacid。Andthereistheopposite
affectionarisingfromanoppositecause，whenthemassofentering
particles，immersedinthemoistureofthemouth，iscongenialto
thetongue，andsmoothsandoilsovertheroughness，andrelaxesthe
partswhichareunnaturallycontracted，andcontractstheparts
whicharerelaxed，anddisposesthemallaccordingtotheir
nature—thatsortofremedyofviolentaffectionsispleasantand
agreeabletoeveryman，andhasthenamesweet。Butenoughofthis。
Thefacultyofsmelldoesnotadmitofdifferencesofkind；for
allsmellsareofahalfformednature，andnoelementisso
proportionedastohaveanysmell。Theveinsaboutthenosearetoo
narrowtoadmitearthandwater，andtoowidetodetainfireand
air；andforthisreasonnooneeverperceivesthesmellofanyof
them；butsmellsalwaysproceedfrombodiesthataredamp，or
putrefying，orliquefying，orevaporating，andareperceptibleonlyin
theintermediatestate，whenwaterischangingintoairandairinto
water；andallofthemareeithervaporormist。Thatwhichispassing
outofairintowaterismist，andthatwhichispassingfromwater
intoairisvapour；andhenceallsmellsarethinnerthanwaterand
thickerthanair。Theproofofthisis，thatwhenthereisany
obstructiontotherespiration，andamandrawsinhisbreathby
force，thennosmellfiltersthrough，buttheairwithoutthesmell
alonepenetrates。Whereforethevarietiesofsmellhavenoname，and
theyhavenotmany，ordefiniteandsimplekinds；buttheyare
distinguishedonlypainfulandpleasant，theonesortirritatingand
disturbingthewholecavitywhichissituatedbetweentheheadandthe
navel，theotherhavingasoothinginfluence，andrestoringthis
sameregiontoanagreeableandnaturalcondition。
Inconsideringthethirdkindofsense，hearing，wemustspeakof
thecausesinwhichitoriginates。Wemayingeneralassumesoundto
beablowwhichpassesthroughtheears，andistransmittedbymeans
oftheair，thebrain，andtheblood，tothesoul，andthathearingis
thevibrationofthisblow，whichbeginsintheheadandendsinthe
regionoftheliver。Thesoundwhichmovesswiftlyisacute，andthe
soundwhichmovesslowlyisgrave，andthatwhichisregularis
equableandsmooth，andthereverseisharsh。Agreatbodyofsoundis
loud，andasmallbodyofsoundthereverse。Respectingthe
harmoniesofsoundImusthereafterspeak。
Thereisafourthclassofsensiblethings，havingmanyintricate
varieties，whichmustnowbedistinguished。Theyarecalledbythe
generalnameofcolours，andareaflamewhichemanatesfromevery
sortofbody，andhasparticlescorrespondingtothesenseofsight。I
havespokenalready，inwhathaspreceded，ofthecauseswhich
generatesight，andinthisplaceitwillbenaturalandsuitableto
givearationaltheoryofcolours。
Oftheparticlescomingfromotherbodieswhichfalluponthesight，
somearesmallerandsomearelarger，andsomeareequaltothe
partsofthesightitself。Thosewhichareequalareimperceptible，
andwecallthemtransparent。Thelargerproducecontraction，the
smallerdilation，inthesight，exercisingapowerakintothatofhot
andcoldbodiesontheflesh，orofastringentbodiesonthetongue，
orofthoseheatingbodieswhichwetermedpungent。Whiteandblack
aresimilareffectsofcontractionanddilationinanothersphere，and
forthisreasonhaveadifferentappearance。Wherefore，weoughtto
termwhitethatwhichdilatesthevisualray，andtheoppositeofthis
isblack。Thereisalsoaswiftermotionofadifferentsortoffire
whichstrikesanddilatestherayofsightuntilitreachesthe
eyes，forcingawaythroughtheirpassagesandmeltingthem，and
elicitingfromthemaunionoffireandwaterwhichwecalltears，
beingitselfanoppositefirewhichcomestothemfromanopposite
direction—theinnerfireflashesforthlikelightning，andtheouter
findsawayinandisextinguishedinthemoisture，andallsortsof
coloursaregeneratedbythemixture。Thisaffectionistermed
dazzling，andtheobjectwhichproducesitiscalledbrightand
flashing。Thereisanothersortoffirewhichisintermediate，and
whichreachesandmingleswiththemoistureoftheeyewithout
flashing；andinthis，thefireminglingwiththerayofthemoisture，
producesacolourlikeblood，towhichwegivethenameofred。A
brighthuemingledwithredandwhitegivesthecolourcalled
auburn。Thelawofproportion，however，accordingtowhichtheseveral
coloursareformed，evenifamanknewhewouldbefoolishintelling，
forhecouldnotgiveanynecessaryreason，norindeedanytolerable
orprobableexplanationofthem。Again，red，whenmingledwithblack
andwhite，becomespurple，butitbecomesumberwhenthecoloursare
burntaswellasmingledandtheblackismorethoroughlymixedwith
them。Flamecolourisproducedbyaunionofauburnanddun，anddun
byanadmixtureofblackandwhite；paleyellow，byanadmixtureof
whiteandauburn。Whiteandbrightmeeting，andfallinguponafull
black，becomedarkblue，andwhendarkbluemingleswithwhite，a
lightbluecolourisformed，asflame—colourwithblackmakesleek
green。Therewillbenodifficultyinseeinghowandbywhat
mixturesthecoloursderivedfromthesearemadeaccordingtothe
rulesofprobability。He，however，whoshouldattempttoverifyall
thisbyexperiment，wouldforgetthedifferenceofthehumanand
divinenature。ForGodonlyhastheknowledgeandalsothepowerwhich
areabletocombinemanythingsintooneandagainresolvetheone
intomany。Butnomaneitherisoreverwillbeabletoaccomplish
eithertheoneortheotheroperation。
Thesearetheelements，thusofnecessitythensubsisting，whichthe
creatorofthefairestandbestofcreatedthingsassociatedwith
himself，whenhemadetheself—sufficingandmostperfectGod，using
thenecessarycausesashisministersintheaccomplishmentofhis
work，buthimselfcontrivingthegoodinallhiscreations。
Whereforewemaydistinguishtwosortsofcauses，theonedivineand
theothernecessary，andmayseekforthedivineinallthings，asfar
asournatureadmits，withaviewtotheblessedlife；butthe
necessarykindonlyforthesakeofthedivine，consideringthat
withoutthemandwhenisolatedfromthem，thesehigherthingsfor
whichwelookcannotbeapprehendedorreceivedorinanywayshared
byus。
Seeing，then，thatwehavenowpreparedforourusethevarious
classesofcauseswhicharethematerialoutofwhichtheremainderof
ourdiscoursemustbewoven，justaswoodisthematerialofthe
carpenter，letusrevertinafewwordstothepointatwhichwe
began，andthenendeavourtoaddonasuitableendingtothebeginning
ofourtale。
AsIsaidatfirst，whenallthingswereindisorderGodcreated
ineachthinginrelationtoitself，andinallthingsinrelation
toeachother，allthemeasuresandharmonieswhichtheycould
possiblyreceive。Forinthosedaysnothinghadanyproportion
exceptbyaccident；nordidanyofthethingswhichnowhavenames
deservetobenamedatall—as，forexample，fire，water，andthe
restoftheelements。Allthesethecreatorfirstsetinorder，and
outofthemheconstructedtheuniverse，whichwasasingleanimal
comprehendinginitselfallotheranimals，mortalandimmortal。Nowof
thedivine，hehimselfwasthecreator，butthecreationofthemortal
hecommittedtohisoffspring。Andthey，imitatinghim，received
fromhimtheimmortalprincipleofthesoul；andaroundthisthey
proceededtofashionamortalbody，and。madeittobethevehicle
ofthesoandconstructedwithinthebodyasoulofanothernature
whichwasmortal，subjecttoterribleandirresistible
affections—firstofall，pleasure，thegreatestincitementtoevil；
then，pain，whichdetersfromgood；alsorashnessandfear，two
foolishcounsellors，angerhardtobeappeased，andhopeeasilyled
astray—thesetheymingledwithirrationalsenseandwithall—daring
loveaccordingtonecessarylaws，andsoframedman。Wherefore，
fearingtopollutethedivineanymorethanwasabsolutely
unavoidable，theygavetothemortalnatureaseparatehabitationin
anotherpartofthebody，placingtheneckbetweenthemtobethe
isthmusandboundary，whichtheyconstructedbetweentheheadand
breast，tokeepthemapart。Andinthebreast，andinwhatistermed
thethorax，theyencasedthemortalsoul；andastheonepartof
thiswassuperiorandtheotherinferiortheydividedthecavityof
thethoraxintotwoparts，asthewomen’sandmen’sapartmentsare
dividedinhouses，andplacedthemidrifftobeawallofpartition
betweenthem。Thatpartoftheinferiorsoulwhichisendowedwith
courageandpassionandlovescontentiontheysettlednearerthehead，
midwaybetweenthemidriffandtheneck，inorderthatitmightbe
undertheruleofreasonandmightjoinwithitincontrollingand
restrainingthedesireswhentheyarenolongerwillingoftheirown
accordtoobeythewordofcommandissuingfromthecitadel。
Theheart，theknotoftheveinsandthefountainofthebloodwhich
racesthroughallthelimbswassetintheplaceofguard，thatwhen
themightofpassionwasrousedbyreasonmakingproclamationofany
wrongassailingthemfromwithoutorbeingperpetratedbythe
desireswithin，quicklythewholepoweroffeelinginthebody，
perceivingthesecommandsandthreats，mightobeyandfollowthrough
everyturnandalley，andthusallowtheprincipleofthebesttohave
thecommandinallofthem。Butthegods，foreknowingthatthe
palpitationoftheheartintheexpectationofdangerandtheswelling
andexcitementofpassionwascausedbyfire，formedandimplanted
asasupportertotheheartthelung，whichwas，inthefirstplace，
softandbloodless，andalsohadwithinhollowsliketheporesofa
sponge，inorderthatbyreceivingthebreathandthedrink，it
mightgivecoolnessandthepowerofrespirationandalleviatethe
heat。Whereforetheycuttheair—channelsleadingtothelung，and
placedthelungabouttheheartasasoftspring，that，whenpassion
wasrifewithin，theheart，beatingagainstayieldingbody，might
becooledandsufferless，andmightthusbecomemorereadytojoin
withpassionintheserviceofreason。
Thepartofthesoulwhichdesiresmeatsanddrinksandtheother
thingsofwhichithasneedbyreasonofthebodilynature，they
placedbetweenthemidriffandtheboundaryofthenavel，contriving
inallthisregionasortofmangerforthefoodofthebody；and
theretheybounditdownlikeawildanimalwhichwaschainedup
withman，andmustbenourishedifmanwastoexist。Theyappointed
thislowercreationhisplacehereinorderthathemightbealways
feedingatthemanger，andhavehisdwellingasfarasmightbefrom
thecouncil—chamber，makingaslittlenoiseanddisturbanceas
possible，andpermittingthebestparttoadvisequietlyforthe
goodofthewhole。Andknowingthatthislowerprincipleinman
wouldnotcomprehendreason，andevenifattainingtosomedegreeof
perceptionwouldnevernaturallycareforrationalnotions，butthat
itwouldbeledawaybyphantomsandvisionsnightandday—tobea
remedyforthis，Godcombinedwithittheliver，andplaceditin
thehouseofthelowernature，contrivingthatitshouldbesolid
andsmooth，andbrightandsweet，andshouldalsohaveabitter
quality，inorderthatthepowerofthought，whichproceedsfromthe
mind，mightbereflectedasinamirrorwhichreceiveslikenessesof
objectsandgivesbackimagesofthemtothesight；andsomight
striketerrorintothedesires，when，makinguseofthebitterpartof
theliver，towhichitisakin，itcomesthreateningandinvading，and
diffusingthisbitterelementswiftlythroughthewholeliverproduces
colourslikebile，andcontractingeverypartmakesitwrinkledand
rough；andtwistingoutofitsrightplaceandcontortingthelobeand
closingandshuttingupthevesselsandgates，causespainand
loathing。Andtheconversehappenswhensomegentleinspirationofthe
understandingpicturesimagesofanoppositecharacter，andallaysthe
bileandbitternessbyrefusingtostirortouchthenatureopposedto
itself，butbymakinguseofthenaturalsweetnessoftheliver，
correctsallthingsandmakesthemtoberightandsmoothandfree，
andrenderstheportionofthesoulwhichresidesabouttheliver
happyandjoyful，enablingittopassthenightinpeace，andto
practisedivinationinsleep，inasmuchasithasnoshareinmind
andreason。Fortheauthorsofourbeing，rememberingthecommandof
theirfatherwhenhebadethemcreatethehumanraceasgoodasthey
could，thattheymightcorrectourinferiorpartsandmakethemto
attainameasureoftruth，placedinthelivertheseatofdivination。
AndhereinisaproofthatGodhasgiventheartofdivinationnot
tothewisdom，buttothefoolishnessofman。Noman，wheninhis
wits，attainsprophetictruthandinspiration；butwhenhereceives
theinspiredword，eitherhisintelligenceisenthralledinsleep，
orheisdementedbysomedistemperorpossession。Andhewhowould
understandwhatherememberstohavebeensaid，whetherinadream
orwhenhewasawake，bythepropheticandinspirednature，orwould
determinebyreasonthemeaningoftheapparitionswhichhehas
seen，andwhatindicationstheyaffordtothismanorthat，ofpast，
presentorfuturegoodandevil，mustfirstrecoverhiswits。But，
whilehecontinuesdemented，hecannotjudgeofthevisionswhichhe
seesorthewordswhichheutters；theancientsayingisverytrue，
that\"onlyamanwhohashiswitscanactorjudgeabouthimselfand
hisownaffairs。\"Andforthisreasonitiscustomarytoappoint
interpreterstobejudgesofthetrueinspiration。Somepersonscall
themprophets；theyarequiteunawarethattheyareonlythe
expositorsofdarksayingsandvisions，andarenottobecalled
prophetsatall，butonlyinterpretersofprophecy。
Suchisthenatureoftheliver，whichisplacedaswehave
describedinorderthatitmaygivepropheticintimations。During
thelifeofeachindividualtheseintimationsareplainer，butafter
hisdeaththeliverbecomesblind，anddeliversoraclestooobscureto
beintelligible。Theneighbouringorgan[thespleen]issituatedon
theleft—handside，andisconstructedwithaviewofkeepingthe
liverbrightandpure—likeanapkin，alwaysreadypreparedandathand
tocleanthemirror。Andhence，whenanyimpuritiesariseinthe
regionoftheliverbyreasonofdisordersofthebody，theloose
natureofthespleen，whichiscomposedofahollowandbloodless
tissue，receivesthemallanddearsthemaway，andwhenfilledwith
theuncleanmatter，swellsandfesters，but，again，whenthebodyis
purged，settlesdownintothesameplaceasbefore，andishumbled。
Concerningthesoul，astowhichpartismortalandwhichdivine，
andhowandwhytheyareseparated，andwherelocated，ifGod
acknowledgesthatwehavespokenthetruth，then，andthenonly，can
webeconfident；still，wemayventuretoassertthatwhathasbeen
saidbyusisprobable，andwillberenderedmoreprobableby
investigation。Letusassumethusmuch。
Thecreationoftherestoffollowsnextinorder，andthiswemay
investigateinasimilarmanner。Anditappearstobeverymeetthat
thebodyshouldbeframedonthefollowingprinciples：—
Theauthorsofourracewereawarethatweshouldbeintemperate
ineatinganddrinking，andtakeagooddealmorethanwasnecessary
orproper，byreasonofgluttony。Inorderthenthatdiseasemightnot
quicklydestroyus，andlestourmortalraceshouldperishwithout
fulfillingitsend—intendingtoprovideagainstthis，thegodsmade
whatiscalledthelowerbelly，tobeareceptacleforthesuperfluous
meatanddrink，andformedtheconvolutionofthebowels，sothat
thefoodmightbepreventedfrompassingquicklythroughand
compellingthebodytorequiremorefood，thusproducinginsatiable
gluttony，andmakingthewholeraceanenemytophilosophyand
music，andrebelliousagainstthedivinestelementwithinus。
Thebonesandflesh，andothersimilarpartsofus，weremadeas
follows。Thefirstprincipleofallofthemwasthegenerationof
themarrow。Forthebondsoflifewhichunitethesoulwiththebody
aremadefastthere，andtheyaretherootandfoundationofthehuman
race。Themarrowitselfiscreatedoutofothermaterials：Godtook
suchoftheprimarytrianglesaswerestraightandsmooth，andwere
adaptedbytheirperfectiontoproducefireandwater，andairand
earth—these，Isay，heseparatedfromtheirkinds，andminglingthem
indueproportionswithoneanother，madethemarrowoutofthemtobe
auniversalseedofthewholeraceofmankind；andinthisseedhe
thenplantedandenclosedthesouls，andintheoriginal
distributiongavetothemarrowasmanyandvariousformsasthe
differentkindsofsoulswerehereaftertoreceive。Thatwhich，likea
field，wastoreceivethedivineseed，hemaderoundeveryway，and
calledthatportionofthemarrow，brain，intendingthat，whenan
animalwasperfected，thevesselcontainingthissubstanceshouldbe
thehead；butthatwhichwasintendedtocontaintheremainingand
mortalpartofthesoulhedistributedintofiguresatoncearoundand
elongated，andhecalledthemallbythename\"marrow\"；andto
these，astoanchors，fasteningthebondsofthewholesoul，he
proceededtofashionaroundthemtheentireframeworkofourbody，
constructingforthemarrow，firstofallacompletecoveringofbone。
Bonewascomposedbyhiminthefollowingmanner。Havingsiftedpure
andsmoothearthhekneadeditandwetteditwithmarrow，andafter
thatheputitintofireandthenintowater，andoncemoreinto
fireandagainintowater—inthiswaybyfrequenttransfersfromone
totheotherhemadeitinsolublebyeither。Outofthishefashioned，
asinalathe，aglobemadeofbone，whichheplacedaroundthebrain，
andinthisheleftanarrowopening；andaroundthemarrowofthe
neckandbackheformedvertebraewhichheplacedunderoneanother
likepivots，beginningattheheadandextendingthroughthewhole
ofthetrunk。Thuswishingtopreservetheentireseed，heenclosedit
inastone—likecasing，insertingjoints，andusingintheformation
ofthemthepoweroftheotherordiverseasanintermediatenature，
thattheymighthavemotionandflexure。Thenagain，considering
thatthebonewouldbetoobrittleandinflexible，andwhenheatedand
againcooledwouldsoonmortifyanddestroytheseedwithin—having
thisinview，hecontrivedthesinewsandtheflesh，thatsobinding
allthememberstogetherbythesinews，whichadmittedofbeing
stretchedandrelaxedaboutthevertebrae，hemightthusmakethebody
capableofflexionandextension，whilethefleshwouldserveasa
protectionagainstthesummerheatandagainstthewintercold，and
alsoagainstfalls，softlyandeasilyyieldingtoexternalbodies，
likearticlesmadeoffelt；andcontaininginitselfawarmmoisture
whichinsummerexudesandmakesthesurfacedamp，wouldimparta
naturecoolnesstothewholebody；andagaininwinterbythehelp
ofthisinternalwarmthwouldformaverytolerabledefenceagainst
thefrostwhichsurroundsitandattacksitfromwithout。Hewho
modelledus，consideringthesethings，mixedearthwithfireandwater
andblendedthem；andmakingafermentofacidandsalt，hemingledit
withthemandformedsoftandsucculentflesh。Asforthesinews，he
madethemofamixtureofboneandunfermentedflesh，attemperedsoas
tobeinamean，andgavethemayellowcolour；whereforethesinews
haveafirmerandmoreglutinousnaturethanflesh，butasofterand
moisternaturethanthebones。WiththeseGodcoveredthebonesand
marrow，bindingthemtogetherbysinews，andthenenshroudedthem
allinanuppercoveringofflesh。Themorelivingandsensitiveof
thebonesheenclosedinthethinnestfilmofflesh，andthosewhich
hadtheleastlifewithintheminthethickestandmostsolidflesh。
Soagainonthejointsofthebones，wherereasonindicatedthatno
morewasrequired，heplacedonlyathincoveringofflesh，thatit
mightnotinterferewiththeflexionofourbodiesandmakethem
unwieldybecausedifficulttomove；andalsothatitmightnot，by
beingcrowdedandpressedandmattedtogether，destroysensationby
reasonofitshardness，andimpairthememoryanddulltheedgeof
intelligence。Whereforealsothethighsandtheshanksandthehips，
andthebonesofthearmsandtheforearms，andotherpartswhichhave
nojoints，andtheinnerbones，whichonaccountoftherarityof
thesoulinthemarrowaredestituteofreason—alltheseare
abundantlyprovidedwithflesh；butsuchashavemindinthemarein
generallessfleshy，exceptwherethecreatorhasmadesomepart
solelyoffleshinordertogivesensation—as，forexample，the
tongue。Butcommonlythisisnotthecase。Forthenaturewhich
comesintobeingandgrowsupinusbyalawofnecessity，doesnot
admitofthecombinationofsolidboneandmuchfleshwithacute
perceptions。Morethananyotherparttheframeworkofthehead
wouldhavehadthem，iftheycouldhaveco—existed，andthehuman
race，havingastrongandfleshyandsinewyhead，wouldhavehada
lifetwiceormanytimesaslongasitnowhas，andalsomore
healthyandfreefrompain。
