Withregardtotheinferencesthatmightbedrawn，inthecaseofseveralspeciesofanimals，themalesofwhichfillourpoultry-yardswithbloodandslaughter，orinspringmaketheforestsresoundwiththeirquarrelsovertheirfemales;wemustbeginbyexcludingallthosespecies，inwhichnaturehasplainlyestablished，inthecomparativepowerofthesexes，relationsdifferentfromthosewhichexistamongus：thuswecanbasenoconclusionaboutmenonthehabitsoffightingcocks。Inthosespecieswheretheproportionisbetterobserved，thesebattlesmustbeentirelyduetothescarcityoffemalesincomparisonwithmales;or，whatamountstothesamething，totheintervalsduringwhichthefemaleconstantlyrefusestheadvancesofthemale：forifeachfemaleadmitsthemalebutduringtwomonthsintheyear，itisthesameasifthenumberoffemaleswerefive-sixthsless。Now，neitherofthesetwocasesisapplicabletothehumanspecies，inwhichthenumberoffemalesusuallyexceedsthatofmales，andamongwhomithasneverbeenobserved，evenamongsavages，thatthefemaleshave，likethoseofotheranimals，theirstatedtimesofpassionandindifference。Moreover，inseveralofthesespecies，theindividualsalltakefireatonce，andtherecomesafearfulmomentofuniversalpassion，tumultanddisorderamongthem;ascenewhichisneverbeheldinthehumanspecies，whoseloveisnotthusseasonal。Wemustnotthenconcludefromthecombatsofsuchanimalsfortheenjoymentofthefemales，thatthecasewouldbethesamewithmankindinastateofnature：
and，evenifwedrewsuchaconclusion，weseethatsuchcontestsdonotexterminateotherkindsofanimals，andwehavenoreasontothinktheywouldbemorefataltoours。Itisindeedclearthattheywoulddostilllessmischiefthanisthecaseinastateofsociety;especiallyinthosecountriesinwhich，moralsbeingstillheldinsomerepute，thejealousyofloversandthevengeanceofhusbandsarethedailycauseofduels，murders，andevenworsecrimes;wheretheobligationofeternalfidelityonlyoccasionsadultery，andtheverylawsofhonourandcontinencenecessarilyincreasedebaucheryandleadtothemultiplicationofabortions。
Letusconcludethenthatmaninastateofnature，wanderingupanddowntheforests，withoutindustry，withoutspeech，andwithouthome，anequalstrangertowarandtoallties，neitherstandinginneedofhisfellow-creaturesnorhavinganydesiretohurtthem，andperhapsevennotdistinguishingthemonefromanother;letusconcludethat，beingself-sufficientandsubjecttosofewpassions，hecouldhavenofeelingsorknowledgebutsuchasbefittedhissituation;thathefeltonlyhisactualnecessities，anddisregardedeverythinghedidnotthinkhimselfimmediatelyconcernedtonotice，andthathisunderstandingmadenogreaterprogressthanhisvanity。Ifbyaccidenthemadeanydiscovery，hewasthelessabletocommunicateittoothers，ashedidnotknowevenhisownchildren。Everyartwouldnecessarilyperishwithitsinventor，wheretherewasnokindofeducationamongmen，andgenerationssucceededgenerationswithouttheleastadvance;
when，allsettingoutfromthesamepoint，centuriesmusthaveelapsedinthebarbarismofthefirstages;whentheracewasalreadyold，andmanremainedachild。
IfIhaveexpatiatedatsuchlengthonthissupposedprimitivestate，itisbecauseIhadsomanyancienterrorsandinveterateprejudicestoeradicate，andthereforethoughtitincumbentonmetodigdowntotheirveryroot，andshow，bymeansofatruepictureofthestateofnature，howfareventhenaturalinequalitiesofmankindarefromhavingthatrealityandinfluencewhichmodernwriterssuppose。
Itisinfacteasytoseethatmanyofthedifferenceswhichdistinguishmenaremerelytheeffectofhabitandthedifferentmethodsoflifemenadoptinsociety。Thusarobustordelicateconstitution，andthestrengthorweaknessattachingtoit，aremorefrequentlytheeffectsofahardyoreffeminatemethodofeducationthanoftheoriginalendowmentofthebody。Itisthesamewiththepowersofthemind;foreducationnotonlymakesadifferencebetweensuchasareculturedandsuchasarenot，butevenincreasesthedifferenceswhichexistamongtheformer，inproportiontotheirrespectivedegreesofculture：asthedistancebetweenagiantandadwarfonthesameroadincreaseswitheverysteptheytake。Ifwecomparetheprodigiousdiversity，whichobtainsintheeducationandmanneroflifeofthevariousordersofmeninthestateofsociety，withtheuniformityandsimplicityofanimalandsavagelife，inwhicheveryonelivesonthesamekindoffoodandinexactlythesamemanner，anddoesexactlythesamethings，itiseasytoconceivehowmuchlessthedifferencebetweenmanandmanmustbeinastateofnaturethaninastateofsociety，andhowgreatlythenaturalinequalityofmankindmustbeincreasedbytheinequalitiesofsocialinstitutions。
Butevenifnaturereallyaffected，inthedistributionofhergifts，thatpartialitywhichisimputedtoher，whatadvantagewouldthegreatestofherfavouritesderivefromit，tothedetrimentofothers，inastatethatadmitsofhardlyanykindofrelationbetweenthem？Wherethereisnolove，ofwhatadvantageisbeauty？Ofwhatuseiswittothosewhodonotconverse，orcunningtothosewhohavenobusinesswithothers？Ihearitconstantlyrepeatedthat，insuchastate，thestrongwouldoppresstheweak;butwhatisheremeantbyoppression？Some，itissaid，wouldviolentlydomineeroverothers，whowouldgroanunderaservilesubmissiontotheircaprices。ThisindeedisexactlywhatIobservetobethecaseamongus;butIdonotseehowitcanbeinferredofmeninastateofnature，whocouldnoteasilybebroughttoconceivewhatwemeanbydominionandservitude。Oneman，itistrue，mightseizethefruitswhichanotherhadgathered，thegamehehadkilled，orthecavehehadchosenforshelter;
buthowwouldheeverbeabletoexactobedience，andwhattiesofdependencecouldtherebeamongmenwithoutpossessions？If，forinstance，Iamdrivenfromonetree，Icangotothenext;ifIamdisturbedinoneplace，whathindersmefromgoingtoanother？Again，shouldIhappentomeetwithamansomuchstrongerthanmyself，andatthesametimesodepraved，soindolent，andsobarbarous，astocompelmetoprovideforhissustenancewhilehehimselfremainsidle;hemusttakecarenottohavehiseyesoffmeforasinglemoment;hemustbindmefastbeforehegoestosleep，orIshallcertainlyeitherknockhimontheheadormakemyescape。Thatistosay，hemustinsuchacasevoluntarilyexposehimselftomuchgreatertroublethanheseekstoavoid，orcangiveme。Afterallthis，lethimbeoffhisguardeversolittle;lethimbutturnhisheadasideatanysuddennoise，andIshallbeinstantlytwentypacesoff，lostintheforest，and，myfettersburstasunder，hewouldneverseemeagain。
Withoutmyexpatiatingthususelesslyonthesedetails，everyonemustseethatasthebondsofservitudeareformedmerelybythemutualdependenceofmenononeanotherandthereciprocalneedsthatunitethem，itisimpossibletomakeanymanaslave，unlesshebefirstreducedtoasituationinwhichhecannotdowithoutthehelpofothers：and，sincesuchasituationdoesnotexistinastateofnature，everyoneistherehisownmaster，andthelawofthestrongestisofnoeffect。
Havingprovedthattheinequalityofmankindishardlyfelt，andthatitsinfluenceisnexttonothinginastateofnature，Imustnextshowitsoriginandtraceitsprogressinthesuccessivedevelopmentsofthehumanmind。Havingshownthathumanperfectibility，thesocialvirtues，andtheotherfacultieswhichnaturalmanpotentiallypossessed，couldneverdevelopofthemselves，butmustrequirethefortuitousconcurrenceofmanyforeigncausesthatmightneverarise，andwithoutwhichhewouldhaveremainedforeverinhisprimitivecondition，Imustnowcollectandconsiderthedifferentaccidentswhichmayhaveimprovedthehumanunderstandingwhiledepravingthespecies，andmademanwickedwhilemakinghimsociable;
soastobringhimandtheworldfromthatdistantperiodtothepointatwhichwenowbeholdthem。
Iconfessthat，astheeventsIamgoingtodescribemighthavehappenedinvariousways，Ihavenothingtodeterminemychoicebutconjectures：
butsuchconjecturesbecomereasons，whentheyarethemostprobablethatcanbedrawnfromthenatureofthings，andtheonlymeansofdiscoveringthetruth。Theconsequences，however，whichImeantodeducewillnotbebarelyconjectural;as，ontheprinciplesjustlaiddown，itwouldbeimpossibletoformanyothertheorythatwouldnotfurnishthesameresults，andfromwhichIcouldnotdrawthesameconclusions。
Thiswillbeasufficientapologyformynotdwellingonthemannerinwhichthelapseoftimecompensatesforthelittleprobabilityintheevents;onthesurprisingpoweroftrivialcauses，whentheiractionisconstant;ontheimpossibility，ontheonehand，ofdestroyingcertainhypotheses，thoughontheotherwecannotgivethemthecertaintyofknownmattersoffact;onitsbeingwithintheprovinceofhistory，whentwofactsaregivenasreal，andhavetobeconnectedbyaseriesofintermediatefacts，whichareunknownorsupposedtobeso，tosupplysuchfactsasmayconnectthem;andonitsbeingintheprovinceofphilosophywhenhistoryissilent，todeterminesimilarfactstoservethesameend;andlastly，ontheinfluenceofsimilarity，which，inthecaseofevents，reducesthefactstoamuchsmallernumberofdifferentclassesthaniscommonlyimagined。
Itisenoughformetoofferthesehintstotheconsiderationofmyjudges，andtohavesoarrangedthatthegeneralreaderhasnoneedtoconsiderthematall。
1。SeeAppendix。
2。Justin，Hist。ii。2。Somuchmoredoestheignoranceofviceprofittheonesortthantheknowledgeofvirtuetheother。
3。Egoismmustnotbeconfusedwithself-respect：
fortheydifferbothinthemselvesandintheireffects。Self-respectisanaturalfeelingwhichleadseveryanimaltolooktoitsownpreservation，andwhich，guidedinmanbyreasonandmodifiedbycompassion，createshumanityandvirtue。Egoismisapurelyrelativeandfactitiousfeeling，whicharisesinthestateofsociety，leadseachindividualtomakemoreofhimselfthanofanyother，causesallthemutualdamagemeninflictoneonanother，andistherealsourceofthe\"senseofhonour。\"Thisbeingunderstood，Imaintainthat，inourprimitivecondition，inthetruestateofnature，egoismdidnotexist;foraseachmanregardedhimselfastheonlyobserverofhisactions，theonlybeingintheuniversewhotookanyinterestinhim，andthesolejudgeofhisdeserts，nofeelingarisingfromcomparisonshecouldnotbeledtomakecouldtakerootinhissoul;
andforthesamereason，hecouldknowneitherhatrednorthedesireforrevenge，sincethesepassionscanspringonlyfromasenseofinjury：andasitisthecontemptortheintentiontohurt，andnottheharmdone，whichconstitutestheinjury，menwhoneithervaluednorcomparedthemselvescoulddooneanothermuchviolence，whenitsuitedthem，withoutfeelinganysenseofinjury。Inaword，eachman，regardinghisfellowsalmostasheregardedanimalsofdifferentspecies，mightseizethepreyofaweakeroryielduphisowntoastronger，andyetconsidertheseactsofviolenceasmerenaturaloccurrences，withouttheslightestemotionofinsolenceordespite，oranyotherfeelingthanthejoyorgriefofsuccessorfailure。
4。Natureavowsshegavethehumanracethesoftesthearts，whogavethemtears。
Rousseau：OntheOriginofInequality：SecondPartTHESECONDPARTTHEfirstmanwho，havingenclosedapieceofground，bethoughthimselfofsayingThisismine，andfoundpeoplesimpleenoughtobelievehim，wastherealfounderofcivilsociety。Fromhowmanycrimes，warsandmurders，fromhowmanyhorrorsandmisfortunesmightnotanyonehavesavedmankind，bypullingupthestakes，orfillinguptheditch，andcryingtohisfellows，\"Bewareoflisteningtothisimpostor;youareundoneifyouonceforgetthatthefruitsoftheearthbelongtousall，andtheearthitselftonobody。\"
Butthereisgreatprobabilitythatthingshadthenalreadycometosuchapitch，thattheycouldnolongercontinueastheywere;fortheideaofpropertydependsonmanypriorideas，whichcouldonlybeacquiredsuccessively，andcannothavebeenformedallatonceinthehumanmind。Mankindmusthavemadeveryconsiderableprogress，andacquiredconsiderableknowledgeandindustrywhichtheymustalsohavetransmittedandincreasedfromagetoage，beforetheyarrivedatthislastpointofthestateofnature。
Letusthengofartherback，andendeavourtounifyunderasinglepointofviewthatslowsuccessionofeventsanddiscoveriesinthemostnaturalorder。
Man’sfirstfeelingwasthatofhisownexistence，andhisfirstcarethatofself-preservation。Theproduceoftheearthfurnishedhimwithallheneeded，andinstincttoldhimhowtouseit。Hungerandotherappetitesmadehimatvarioustimesexperiencevariousmodesofexistence;andamongthesewasonewhichurgedhimtopropagatehisspecies？ablindpropensitythat，havingnothingtodowiththeheart，producedamerelyanimalact。
Thewantoncegratified，thetwosexeskneweachothernomore;andeventheoffspringwasnothingtoitsmother，assoonasitcoulddowithouther。
Suchwastheconditionofinfantman;thelifeofananimallimitedatfirsttomeresensations，andhardlyprofitingbythegiftsnaturebestowedonhim，muchlesscapableofentertainingathoughtofforcinganythingfromher。Butdifficultiessoonpresentedthemselves，anditbecamenecessarytolearnhowtosurmountthem：theheightofthetrees，whichpreventedhimfromgatheringtheirfruits，thecompetitionofotheranimalsdesirousofthesamefruits，andtheferocityofthosewhoneededthemfortheirownpreservation，allobligedhimtoapplyhimselftobodilyexercises。
Hehadtobeactive，swiftoffoot，andvigorousinfight。Naturalweapons，stonesandsticks，wereeasilyfound：helearnttosurmounttheobstaclesofnature，tocontendincaseofnecessitywithotheranimals，andtodisputeforthemeansofsubsistenceevenwithothermen，ortoindemnifyhimselfforwhathewasforcedtogiveuptoastronger。
Inproportionasthehumanracegrewmorenumerous，men’scaresincreased。
Thedifferenceofsoils，climatesandseasons，musthaveintroducedsomedifferencesintotheirmannerofliving。Barrenyears，longandsharpwinters，scorchingsummerswhichparchedthefruitsoftheearth，musthavedemandedanewindustry。Ontheseashoreandthebanksofrivers，theyinventedthehookandline，andbecamefishermenandeatersoffish。Intheforeststheymadebowsandarrows，andbecamehuntsmenandwarriors。Incoldcountriestheyclothedthemselveswiththeskinsofthebeaststheyhadslain。Thelightning，avolcano，orsomeluckychanceacquaintedthemwithfire，anewresourceagainsttherigoursofwinter：theynextlearnedhowtopreservethiselement，thenhowtoreproduceit，andfinallyhowtopreparewithitthefleshofanimalswhichbeforetheyhadeatenraw。
Thisrepeatedrelevanceofvariousbeingstohimself，andonetoanother，wouldnaturallygiveriseinthehumanmindtotheperceptionsofcertainrelationsbetweenthem。Thustherelationswhichwedenotebytheterms，great，small，strong，weak，swift，slow，fearful，bold，andthelike，almostinsensiblycomparedatneed，musthaveatlengthproducedinhimakindofreflection，orratheramechanicalprudence，whichwouldindicatetohimtheprecautionsmostnecessarytohissecurity。
Thenewintelligencewhichresultedfromthisdevelopmentincreasedhissuperiorityoverotheranimals，bymakinghimsensibleofit。Hewouldnowendeavour，therefore，toensnarethem，wouldplaythemathousandtricks，andthoughmanyofthemmightsurpasshiminswiftnessorinstrength，wouldintimebecomethemasterofsomeandthescourgeofothers。Thus，thefirsttimehelookedintohimself，hefeltthefirstemotionofpride;
and，atatimewhenhescarceknewhowtodistinguishthedifferentordersofbeings，bylookinguponhisspeciesasofthehighestorder，hepreparedthewayforassumingpre-eminenceasanindividual。
Othermen，itistrue，werenotthentohimwhattheynowaretous，andhehadnogreaterintercoursewiththemthanwithotheranimals;yettheywerenotneglectedinhisobservations。Theconformities，whichhewouldintimediscoverbetweenthem，andbetweenhimselfandhisfemale，ledhimtojudgeofotherswhichwerenotthenperceptible;andfindingthattheyallbehavedashehimselfwouldhavedoneinlikecircumstances，henaturallyinferredthattheirmannerofthinkingandactingwasaltogetherinconformitywithhisown。Thisimportanttruth，oncedeeplyimpressedonhismind，musthaveinducedhim，fromanintuitivefeelingmorecertainandmuchmorerapidthananykindofreasoning，topursuetherulesofconduct，whichhehadbestobservetowardsthem，forhisownsecurityandadvantage。
Taughtbyexperiencethattheloveofwell-beingisthesolemotiveofhumanactions，hefoundhimselfinapositiontodistinguishthefewcases，inwhichmutualinterestmightjustifyhiminrelyingupontheassistanceofhisfellows;andalsothestillfewercasesinwhichaconflictofinterestsmightgivecausetosuspectthem。Intheformercase，hejoinedinthesameherdwiththem，oratmostinsomekindoflooseassociation，thatlaidnorestraintonitsmembers，andlastednolongerthanthetransitoryoccasionthatformedit。Inthelattercase，everyonesoughthisownprivateadvantage，eitherbyopenforce，ifhethoughthimselfstrongenough，orbyaddressandcunning，ifhefelthimselftheweaker。
Inthismanner，menmayhaveinsensiblyacquiredsomegrossideasofmutualundertakings，andoftheadvantagesoffulfillingthem：thatis，justsofarastheirpresentandapparentinterestwasconcerned：fortheywereperfectstrangerstoforesight，andweresofarfromtroublingthemselvesaboutthedistantfuture，thattheyhardlythoughtofthemorrow。Ifadeerwastobetaken，everyonesawthat，inordertosucceed，hemustabidefaithfullybyhispost：butifaharehappenedtocomewithinthereachofanyoneofthem，itisnottobedoubtedthathepursueditwithoutscruple，and，havingseizedhisprey，caredverylittle，ifbysodoinghecausedhiscompanionstomisstheirs。
Itiseasytounderstandthatsuchintercoursewouldnotrequirealanguagemuchmorerefinedthanthatofrooksormonkeys，whoassociatetogetherformuchthesamepurpose。Inarticulatecries，plentyofgesturesandsomeimitativesounds，musthavebeenforalongtimetheuniversallanguage;
andbytheaddition，ineverycountry，ofsomeconventionalarticulatesounds（ofwhich，asIhavealreadyintimated，thefirstinstitutionisnottooeasytoexplain）particularlanguageswereproduced;butthesewererudeandimperfect，andnearlysuchasarenowtobefoundamongsomesavagenations。
Hurriedonbytherapidityoftime，bytheabundanceofthingsIhavetosay，andbythealmostinsensibleprogressofthingsintheirbeginnings，Ipassoverinaninstantamultitudeofages;fortheslowertheeventswereintheirsuccession，themorerapidlymaytheybedescribed。
Thesefirstadvancesenabledmentomakeotherswithgreaterrapidity。
Inproportionastheygrewenlightened，theygrewindustrious。Theyceasedtofallasleepunderthefirsttree，orinthefirstcavethataffordedthemshelter;theyinventedseveralkindsofimplementsofhardandsharpstones，whichtheyusedtodiguptheearth，andtocutwood;theythenmadehutsoutofbranches，andafterwardslearnttoplasterthemoverwithmudandclay。Thiswastheepochofafirstrevolution，whichestablishedanddistinguishedfamilies，andintroducedakindofproperty，initselfthesourceofathousandquarrelsandconflicts。As，however，thestrongestwereprobablythefirsttobuildthemselveshutswhichtheyfeltthemselvesabletodefend，itmaybeconcludedthattheweakfounditmucheasierandsafertoimitate，thantoattempttodislodgethem：andofthosewhowereonceprovidedwithhuts，nonecouldhaveanyinducementtoappropriatethatofhisneighbour;notindeedsomuchbecauseitdidnotbelongtohim，asbecauseitcouldbeofnouse，andhecouldnotmakehimselfmasterofitwithoutexposinghimselftoadesperatebattlewiththefamilywhichoccupiedit。
Thefirstexpansionsofthehumanheartweretheeffectsofanovelsituation，whichunitedhusbandsandwives，fathersandchildren，underoneroof。Thehabitoflivingtogethersoongaverisetothefinestfeelingsknowntohumanity，conjugalloveandpaternalaffection。Everyfamilybecamealittlesociety，themoreunitedbecauselibertyandreciprocalattachmentweretheonlybondsofitsunion。Thesexes，whosemanneroflifehadbeenhithertothesame，begannowtoadoptdifferentwaysofliving。Thewomenbecamemoresedentary，andaccustomedthemselvestomindthehutandtheirchildren，whilethemenwentabroadinsearchoftheircommonsubsistence。
Fromlivingasofterlife，bothsexesalsobegantolosesomethingoftheirstrengthandferocity：but，ifindividualsbecametosomeextentlessabletoencounterwildbeastsseparately，theyfoundit，ontheotherhand，easiertoassembleandresistincommon。
Thesimplicityandsolitudeofman’slifeinthisnewcondition，thepaucityofhiswants，andtheimplementshehadinventedtosatisfythem，lefthimagreatdealofleisure，whichheemployedtofurnishhimselfwithmanyconveniencesunknowntohisfathers：andthiswasthefirstyokeheinadvertentlyimposedonhimself，andthefirstsourceoftheevilshepreparedforhisdescendants。For，besidescontinuingthustoenervatebothbodyandmind，theseconvenienceslostwithusealmostalltheirpowertoplease，andevendegeneratedintorealneeds，tillthewantofthembecamefarmoredisagreeablethanthepossessionofthemhadbeenpleasant。
Menwouldhavebeenunhappyatthelossofthem，thoughthepossessiondidnotmakethemhappy。
Wecanhereseealittlebetterhowtheuseofspeechbecameestablished，andinsensiblyimprovedineachfamily，andwemayformaconjecturealsoconcerningthemannerinwhichvariouscausesmayhaveextendedandacceleratedtheprogressoflanguage，bymakingitmoreandmorenecessary。Floodsorearthquakessurroundedinhabiteddistrictswithprecipicesorwaters：
revolutionsoftheglobetoreoffportionsfromthecontinent，andmadethemislands。Itisreadilyseenthatamongmenthuscollectedandcompelledtolivetogether，acommonidiommusthavearisenmuchmoreeasilythanamongthosewhostillwanderedthroughtheforestsofthecontinent。Thusitisverypossiblethataftertheirfirstessaysinnavigationtheislandersbroughtovertheuseofspeechtothecontinent：anditisatleastveryprobablethatcommunitiesandlanguageswerefirstestablishedinislands，andevencametoperfectiontherebeforetheywereknownonthemainland。
Everythingnowbeginstochangeitsaspect。Men，whohaveuptonowbeenrovinginthewoods，bytakingtoamoresettledmanneroflife，comegraduallytogether，formseparatebodies，andatlengthineverycountryarisesadistinctnation，unitedincharacterandmanners，notbyregulationsorlaws，butbyuniformityoflifeandfood，andthecommoninfluenceofclimate。Permanentneighbourhoodcouldnotfailtoproduce，intime，someconnectionbetweendifferentfamilies。Amongyoungpeopleofoppositesexes，livinginneighbouringhuts，thetransientcommercerequiredbynaturesoonled，throughmutualintercourse，toanotherkindnotlessagreeable，andmorepermanent。Menbegannowtotakethedifferencebetweenobjectsintoaccount，andtomakecomparisons;theyacquiredimperceptiblytheideasofbeautyandmerit，whichsoongaverisetofeelingsofpreference。
Inconsequenceofseeingeachotheroften，theycouldnotdowithoutseeingeachotherconstantly。Atenderandpleasantfeelinginsinuateditselfintotheirsouls，andtheleastoppositionturneditintoanimpetuousfury：withlovearosejealousy;discordtriumphed，andhumanbloodwassacrificedtothegentlestofallpassions。
Asideasandfeelingssucceededoneanother，andheartandheadwerebroughtintoplay，mencontinuedtolayasidetheiroriginalwildness;
theirprivateconnectionsbecameeverydaymoreintimateastheirlimitsextended。Theyaccustomedthemselvestoassemblebeforetheirhutsroundalargetree;singinganddancing，thetrueoffspringofloveandleisure，becametheamusement，orrathertheoccupation，ofmenandwomenthusassembledtogetherwithnothingelsetodo。Eachonebegantoconsidertherest，andtowishtobeconsideredinturn;andthusavaluecametobeattachedtopublicesteem。Whoeversangordancedbest，whoeverwasthehandsomest，thestrongest，themostdexterous，orthemosteloquent，cametobeofmostconsideration;andthiswasthefirststeptowardsinequality，andatthesametimetowardsvice。Fromthesefirstdistinctionsaroseontheonesidevanityandcontemptandontheothershameandenvy：andthefermentationcausedbythesenewleavensendedbyproducingcombinationsfataltoinnocenceandhappiness。
Assoonasmenbegantovalueoneanother，andtheideaofconsiderationhadgotafootinginthemind，everyoneputinhisclaimtoit，anditbecameimpossibletorefuseittoanywithimpunity。Hencearosethefirstobligationsofcivilityevenamongsavages;andeveryintendedinjurybecameanaffront;because，besidesthehurtwhichmightresultfromit，thepartyinjuredwascertaintofindinitacontemptforhisperson，whichwasoftenmoreinsupportablethanthehurtitself。
Thus，aseverymanpunishedthecontemptshownhimbyothers，inproportiontohisopinionofhimself，revengebecameterrible，andmenbloodyandcruel。Thisispreciselythestatereachedbymostofthesavagenationsknowntous：anditisforwantofhavingmadeaproperdistinctioninourideas，andseehowveryfartheyalreadyarefromthestateofnature，thatsomanywritershavehastilyconcludedthatmanisnaturallycruel，andrequirescivilinstitutionstomakehimmoremild;whereasnothingismoregentlethanmaninhisprimitivestate，asheisplacedbynatureatanequaldistancefromthestupidityofbrutes，andthefatalingenuityofcivilisedman。Equallyconfinedbyinstinctandreasontothesolecareofguardinghimselfagainstthemischiefswhichthreatenhim，heisrestrainedbynaturalcompassionfromdoinganyinjurytoothers，andisnotledtodosuchathingeveninreturnforinjuriesreceived。For，accordingtotheaxiomofthewiseLocke，Therecanbenoinjury，wherethereisnoproperty。
Butitmustberemarkedthatthesocietythusformed，andtherelationsthusestablishedamongmen，requiredofthemqualitiesdifferentfromthosewhichtheypossessedfromtheirprimitiveconstitution。Moralitybegantoappearinhumanactions，andeveryone，beforetheinstitutionoflaw，wastheonlyjudgeandavengeroftheinjuriesdonehim，sothatthegoodnesswhichwassuitableinthepurestateofnaturewasnolongerproperinthenew-bornstateofsociety。Punishmentshadtobemademoresevere，asopportunitiesofoffendingbecamemorefrequent，andthedreadofvengeancehadtotaketheplaceoftherigourofthelaw。Thus，thoughmenhadbecomelesspatient，andtheirnaturalcompassionhadalreadysufferedsomediminution，thisperiodofexpansionofthehumanfaculties，keepingajustmeanbetweentheindolenceoftheprimitivestateandthepetulantactivityofouregoism，musthavebeenthehappiestandmoststableofepochs。Themorewereflectonit，themoreweshallfindthatthisstatewastheleastsubjecttorevolutions，andaltogethertheverybestmancouldexperience;sothathecanhavedepartedfromitonlythroughsomefatalaccident，which，forthepublicgood，shouldneverhavehappened。Theexampleofsavages，mostofwhomhavebeenfoundinthisstate，seemstoprovethatmenweremeanttoremaininit，thatitistherealyouthoftheworld，andthatallsubsequentadvanceshavebeenapparentlysomanystepstowardstheperfectionoftheindividual，butinrealitytowardsthedecrepitudeofthespecies。
Solongasmenremainedcontentwiththeirrustichuts，solongastheyweresatisfiedwithclothesmadeoftheskinsofanimalsandsewntogetherwiththornsandfish-bones，adornedthemselvesonlywithfeathersandshells，andcontinuedtopainttheirbodiesdifferentcolours，toimproveandbeautifytheirbowsandarrowsandtomakewithsharp-edgedstonesfishingboatsorclumsymusicalinstruments;inaword，solongastheyundertookonlywhatasinglepersoncouldaccomplish，andconfinedthemselvestosuchartsasdidnotrequirethejointlabourofseveralhands，theylivedfree，healthy，honestandhappylives，solongastheirnatureallowed，andastheycontinuedtoenjoythepleasuresofmutualandindependentintercourse。
Butfromthemomentonemanbegantostandinneedofthehelpofanother;
fromthemomentitappearedadvantageoustoanyonemantohaveenoughprovisionsfortwo，equalitydisappeared，propertywasintroduced，workbecameindispensable，andvastforestsbecamesmilingfields，whichmanhadtowaterwiththesweatofhisbrow，andwhereslaveryandmiseryweresoonseentogerminateandgrowupwiththecrops。
Metallurgyandagriculturewerethetwoartswhichproducedthisgreatrevolution。Thepoetstellusitwasgoldandsilver，but，forthephilosophers，itwasironandcorn，whichfirstcivilisedmen，andruinedhumanity。ThusbothwereunknowntothesavagesofAmerica，whoforthatreasonarestillsavage：theothernationsalsoseemtohavecontinuedinastateofbarbarismwhiletheypractisedonlyoneofthesearts。Oneofthebestreasons，perhaps，whyEuropehasbeen，ifnotlonger，atleastmoreconstantlyandhighlycivilisedthantherestoftheworld，isthatitisatoncethemostabundantinironandthemostfertileincorn。
Itisdifficulttoconjecturehowmenfirstcametoknowanduseiron;
foritisimpossibletosupposetheywouldofthemselvesthinkofdiggingtheoreoutofthemine，andpreparingitforsmelting，beforetheyknewwhatwouldbetheresult。Ontheotherhand，wehavethelessreasontosupposethisdiscoverytheeffectofanyaccidentalfire，asminesareonlyformedinbarrenplaces，bareoftreesandplants;sothatitlooksasifnaturehadtakenpainstokeepthatfatalsecretfromus。Thereremains，therefore，onlytheextraordinaryaccidentofsomevolcanowhich，byejectingmetallicsubstancesalreadyinfusion，suggestedtothespectatorstheideaofimitatingthenaturaloperation。Andwemustfurtherconceivethemaspossessedofuncommoncourageandforesight，toundertakesolaboriousawork，withsodistantaprospectofdrawingadvantagefromit;yetthesequalitiesareunitedonlyinmindsmoreadvancedthanwecansupposethoseofthesefirstdiscovererstohavebeen。
Withregardtoagriculture，theprinciplesofitwereknownlongbeforetheywereputinpractice;anditisindeedhardlypossiblethatmen，constantlyemployedindrawingtheirsubsistencefromplantsandtrees，shouldnotreadilyacquireaknowledgeofthemeansmadeuseofbynatureforthepropagationofvegetables。Itwasinallprobabilityverylong，however，beforetheirindustrytookthatturn，eitherbecausetrees，whichtogetherwithhuntingandfishingaffordedthemfood，didnotrequiretheirattention;
orbecausetheywereignorantoftheuseofcorn，orwithoutinstrumentstocultivateit;orbecausetheylackedforesighttofutureneeds;orlastily，becausetheywerewithoutmeansofpreventingothersfromrobbingthemofthefruitoftheirlabour。
Whentheygrewmoreindustrious，itisnaturaltobelievethattheybegan，withthehelpofsharpstonesandpointedsticks，tocultivateafewvegetablesorrootsaroundtheirhuts;thoughitwaslongbeforetheyknewhowtopreparecorn，orwereprovidedwiththeimplementsnecessaryforraisingitinanylargequantity;nottomentionhowessentialitis，forhusbandry，toconsenttoimmediateloss，inordertoreapafuturegain？aprecautionveryforeigntotheturnofasavage’smind;for，asIhavesaid，hehardlyforeseesinthemorningwhathewillneedatnight。
Theinventionoftheotherartsmustthereforehavebeennecessarytocompelmankindtoapplythemselvestoagriculture。Nosoonerwereartificerswantedtosmeltandforgeiron，thanotherswererequiredtomaintainthem;
themorehandsthatwereemployedinmanufactures，thefewerwerelefttoprovideforthecommonsubsistence，thoughthenumberofmouthstobefurnishedwithfoodremainedthesame：andassomerequiredcommoditiesinexchangefortheiriron，therestatlengthdiscoveredthemethodofmakingironserveforthemultiplicationofcommodities。Bythismeanstheartsofhusbandryandagriculturewereestablishedontheonehand，andtheartofworkingmetalsandmultiplyingtheirusesontheother。
Thecultivationoftheearthnecessarilybroughtaboutitsdistribution;
andproperty，oncerecognised，gaverisetothefirstrulesofjustice;
for，tosecureeachmanhisown，ithadtobepossibleforeachtohavesomething。Besides，asmenbegantolookforwardtothefuture，andallhadsomethingtolose，everyonehadreasontoapprehendthatreprisalswouldfollowanyinjuryhemightdotoanother。Thisoriginissomuchthemorenatural，asitisimpossibletoconceivehowpropertycancomefromanythingbutmanuallabour：forwhatelsecanamanaddtothingswhichhedoesnotoriginallycreate，soastomakethemhisownproperty？
Itisthehusbandman’slabouralonethat，givinghimatitletotheproduceofthegroundhehastilled，giveshimaclaimalsotothelanditself，atleasttillharvest，andso，fromyeartoyear，aconstantpossessionwhichiseasilytransformedintoproperty。Whentheancients，saysGrotius，gavetoCeresthetitleofLegislatrix，andtoafestivalcelebratedinherhonourthenameofThesmophoria，theymeantbythatthatthedistributionoflandshadproducedanewkindofright：thatistosay，therightofproperty，whichisdifferentfromtherightdeduciblefromthelawofnature。
Inthisstateofaffairs，equalitymighthavebeensustained，hadthetalentsofindividualsbeenequal，andhad，forexample，theuseofironandtheconsumptionofcommoditiesalwaysexactlybalancedeachother;
but，astherewasnothingtopreservethisbalance，itwassoondisturbed;
thestrongestdidmostwork;themostskilfulturnedhislabourtobestaccount;themostingeniousdevisedmethodsofdiminishinghislabour：
thehusbandmanwantedmoreiron，orthesmithmorecorn，and，whilebothlabouredequally，theonegainedagreatdealbyhiswork，whiletheothercouldhardlysupporthimself。Thusnaturalinequalityunfoldsitselfinsensiblywiththatofcombination，andthedifferencebetweenmen，developedbytheirdifferentcircumstances，becomesmoresensibleandpermanentinitseffects，andbeginstohaveaninfluence，inthesameproportion，overthelotofindividuals。
Mattersonceatthispitch，itiseasytoimaginetherest。Ishallnotdetainthereaderwithadescriptionofthesuccessiveinventionofotherarts，thedevelopmentoflanguage，thetrialandutilisationoftalents，theinequalityoffortunes，theuseandabuseofriches，andallthedetailsconnectedwiththemwhichthereadercaneasilysupplyforhimself。Ishallconfinemyselftoaglanceatmankindinthisnewsituation。
Beholdthenallhumanfacultiesdeveloped，memoryandimaginationinfullplay，egoisminterested，reasonactive，andthemindalmostatthehighestpointofitsperfection。Beholdallthenaturalqualitiesinaction，therankandconditionofeverymanassignedhim;notmerelyhisshareofpropertyandhispowertoserveorinjureothers，butalsohiswit，beauty，strengthorskill，meritortalents：andthesebeingtheonlyqualitiescapableofcommandingrespect，itsoonbecamenecessarytopossessortoaffectthem。
Itnowbecametheinterestofmentoappearwhattheyreallywerenot。
Tobeandtoseembecametwototallydifferentthings;andfromthisdistinctionspranginsolentpompandcheatingtrickery，withallthenumerousvicesthatgointheirtrain。Ontheotherhand，freeandindependentasmenwerebefore，theywerenow，inconsequenceofamultiplicityofnewwants，broughtintosubjection，asitwere，toallnature，andparticularlytooneanother;andeachbecameinsomedegreeaslaveeveninbecomingthemasterofothermen：ifrich，theystoodinneedoftheservicesofothers;
ifpoor，oftheirassistance;andevenamiddleconditiondidnotenablethemtodowithoutoneanother。Manmustnow，therefore，havebeenperpetuallyemployedingettingotherstointerestthemselvesinhislot，andinmakingthem，apparentlyatleast，ifnotreally，findtheiradvantageinpromotinghisown。Thushemusthavebeenslyandartfulinhisbehaviourtosome，andimperiousandcrueltoothers;beingunderakindofnecessitytoill-useallthepersonsofwhomhestoodinneed，whenhecouldnotfrightenthemintocompliance，anddidnotjudgeithisinteresttobeusefultothem。
Insatiableambition，thethirstofraisingtheirrespectivefortunes，notsomuchfromrealwantasfromthedesiretosurpassothers，inspiredallmenwithavilepropensitytoinjureoneanother，andwithasecretjealousy，whichisthemoredangerous，asitputsonthemaskofbenevolence，tocarryitspointwithgreatersecurity。Inaword，therearoserivalryandcompetitionontheonehand，andconflictinginterestsontheother，togetherwithasecretdesireonbothofprofitingattheexpenseofothers。Alltheseevilswerethefirsteffectsofproperty，andtheinseparableattendantsofgrowinginequality。
Beforetheinventionofsignstorepresentriches，wealthcouldhardlyconsistinanythingbutlandsandcattle，theonlyrealpossessionsmencanhave。But，wheninheritancessoincreasedinnumberandextentastooccupythewholeoftheland，andtoborderononeanother，onemancouldaggrandisehimselfonlyattheexpenseofanother;atthesametimethesupernumeraries，whohadbeentooweakortooindolenttomakesuchacquisitions，andhadgrownpoorwithoutsustaininganyloss，because，whiletheysaweverythingchangearoundthem，theyremainedstillthesame，wereobligedtoreceivetheirsubsistence，orstealit，fromtherich;andthissoonbred，accordingtotheirdifferentcharacters，dominionandslavery，orviolenceandrapine。Thewealthy，ontheirpart，hadnosoonerbeguntotastethepleasureofcommand，thantheydisdainedallothers，and，usingtheiroldslavestoacquirenew，thoughtofnothingbutsubduingandenslavingtheirneighbours;likeravenouswolves，which，havingoncetastedhumanflesh，despiseeveryotherfoodandthenceforthseekonlymentodevour。
Thus，asthemostpowerfulorthemostmiserableconsideredtheirmightormiseryasakindofrighttothepossessionsofothers，equivalent，intheiropinion，tothatofproperty，thedestructionofequalitywasattendedbythemostterribledisorders。Usurpationsbytherich，robberybythepoor，andtheunbridledpassionsofboth，suppressedthecriesofnaturalcompassionandthestillfeeblevoiceofjustice，andfilledmenwithavarice，ambitionandvice。Betweenthetitleofthestrongestandthatofthefirstoccupier，therearoseperpetualconflicts，whichneverendedbutinbattlesandbloodshed。Thenew-bornstateofsocietythusgaverisetoahorriblestateofwar;menthusharassedanddepravedwerenolongercapableofretracingtheirstepsorrenouncingthefatalacquisitionstheyhadmade，but，labouringbytheabuseofthefacultieswhichdothemhonour，merelytotheirownconfusion，broughtthemselvestothebrinkofruin。
Attonitusnovitatemali，divesquemiserque，Effugereoptatopes;etquæmodovoveratodit。5Itisimpossiblethatmenshouldnotatlengthhavereflectedonsowretchedasituation，andonthecalamitiesthatoverwhelmedthem。Therich，inparticular，musthavefelthowmuchtheysufferedbyaconstantstateofwar，ofwhichtheyborealltheexpense;andinwhich，thoughallriskedtheirlives，theyaloneriskedtheirproperty。Besides，howeverspeciouslytheymightdisguisetheirusurpations，theyknewthattheywerefoundedonprecariousandfalsetitles;sothat，ifotherstookfromthembyforcewhattheythemselveshadgainedbyforce，theywouldhavenoreasontocomplain。Eventhosewhohadbeenenrichedbytheirownindustry，couldhardlybasetheirproprietorshiponbetterclaims。Itwasinvaintorepeat，\"Ibuiltthiswell;Igainedthisspotbymyindustry。\"Whogaveyouyourstanding，itmightbeanswered，andwhatrighthaveyoutodemandpaymentofusfordoingwhatweneveraskedyoutodo？Doyounotknowthatnumbersofyourfellow-creaturesarestarving，forwantofwhatyouhavetoomuchof？Yououghttohavehadtheexpressanduniversalconsentofmankind，beforeappropriatingmoreofthecommonsubsistencethanyouneededforyourownmaintenance。Destituteofvalidreasonstojustifyandsufficientstrengthtodefendhimself，abletocrushindividualswithease，buteasilycrushedhimselfbyatroopofbandits，oneagainstall，andincapable，onaccountofmutualjealousy，ofjoiningwithhisequalsagainstnumerousenemiesunitedbythecommonhopeofplunder，therichman，thusurgedbynecessity，conceivedatlengththeprofoundestplanthateverenteredthemindofman：thiswastoemployinhisfavourtheforcesofthosewhoattackedhim，tomakealliesofhisadversaries，toinspirethemwithdifferentmaxims，andtogivethemotherinstitutionsasfavourabletohimselfasthelawofnaturewasunfavourable。
Withthisview，afterhavingrepresentedtohisneighboursthehorrorofasituationwhicharmedeverymanagainsttherest，andmadetheirpossessionsasburdensometothemastheirwants，andinwhichnosafetycouldbeexpectedeitherinrichesorinpoverty，hereadilydevisedplausibleargumentstomakethemclosewithhisdesign。\"Letusjoin，\"saidhe，\"toguardtheweakfromoppression，torestraintheambitious，andsecuretoeverymanthepossessionofwhatbelongstohim：letusinstituterulesofjusticeandpeace，towhichallwithoutexceptionmaybeobligedtoconform;rulesthatmayinsomemeasuremakeamendsforthecapricesoffortune，bysubjectingequallythepowerfulandtheweaktotheobservanceofreciprocalobligations。
Letus，inaword，insteadofturningourforcesagainstourselves，collecttheminasupremepowerwhichmaygovernusbywiselaws，protectanddefendallthemembersoftheassociation，repulsetheircommonenemies，andmaintaineternalharmonyamongus。\"
Farfewerwordstothispurposewouldhavebeenenoughtoimposeonmensobarbarousandeasilyseduced;especiallyastheyhadtoomanydisputesamongthemselvestodowithoutarbitrators，andtoomuchambitionandavaricetogolongwithoutmasters。Allranheadlongtotheirchains，inhopesofsecuringtheirliberty;fortheyhadjustwitenoughtoperceivetheadvantagesofpoliticalinstitutions，withoutexperienceenoughtoenablethemtoforeseethedangers。Themostcapableofforeseeingthedangersweretheverypersonswhoexpectedtobenefitbythem;andeventhemostprudentjudgeditnotinexpedienttosacrificeonepartoftheirfreedomtoensuretherest;asawoundedmanhashisarmcutofftosavetherestofhisbody。
Suchwas，ormaywellhavebeen，theoriginofsocietyandlaw，whichboundnewfettersonthepoor，andgavenewpowerstotherich;whichirretrievablydestroyednaturalliberty，eternallyfixedthelawofpropertyandinequality，convertedcleverusurpationintounalterableright，and，fortheadvantageofafewambitiousindividuals，subjectedallmankindtoperpetuallabour，slaveryandwretchedness。Itiseasytoseehowtheestablishmentofonecommunitymadethatofalltherestnecessary，andhow，inordertomakeheadagainstunitedforces，therestofmankindhadtouniteinturn。Societiessoonmultipliedandspreadoverthefaceoftheearth，tillhardlyacorneroftheworldwasleftinwhichamancouldescapetheyoke，andwithdrawhisheadfrombeneaththeswordwhichhesawperpetuallyhangingoverhimbyathread。Civilrighthavingthusbecomethecommonruleamongthemembersofeachcommunity，thelawofnaturemaintaineditsplaceonlybetweendifferentcommunities，where，underthenameoftherightofnations，itwasqualifiedbycertaintacitconventions，inordertomakecommercepracticable，andserveasasubstitutefornaturalcompassion，whichlost，whenappliedtosocieties，almostalltheinfluenceithadoverindividuals，andsurvivednolongerexceptinsomegreatcosmopolitanspirits，who，breakingdowntheimaginarybarriersthatseparatedifferentpeoples，followtheexampleofourSovereignCreator，andincludethewholehumanraceintheirbenevolence。
Butbodiespolitic，remainingthusinastateofnatureamongthemselves，presentlyexperiencedtheinconvenienceswhichhadobligedindividualstoforsakeit;forthisstatebecamestillmorefataltothesegreatbodiesthanithadbeentotheindividualsofwhomtheywerecomposed。Hencearosenationalwars，battles，murders，andreprisals，whichshocknatureandoutragereason;togetherwithallthosehorribleprejudiceswhichclassamongthevirtuesthehonourofsheddinghumanblood。Themostdistinguishedmenhencelearnedtoconsidercuttingeachother’sthroatsaduty;atlengthmenmassacredtheirfellow-creaturesbythousandswithoutsomuchasknowingwhy，andcommittedmoremurdersinasingleday’sfighting，andmoreviolentoutragesinthesackofasingletown，thanwerecommittedinthestateofnatureduringwholeagesoverthewholeearth。Suchwerethefirsteffectswhichwecanseetohavefollowedthedivisionofmankindintodifferentcommunities。Butletusreturntotheirinstitutions。
Iknowthatsomewritershavegivenotherexplanationsoftheoriginofpoliticalsocieties，suchastheconquestofthepowerful，ortheassociationoftheweak。Itis，indeed，indifferenttomyargumentwhichofthesecauseswechoose。ThatwhichIhavejustlaiddown，however，appearstomethemostnaturalforthefollowingreasons。First：because，inthefirstcase，therightofconquest，beingnorightinitself，couldnotserveasafoundationonwhichtobuildanyother;thevictorandthevanquishedpeoplestillremainedwithrespecttoeachotherinthestateofwar，unlessthevanquished，restoredtothefullpossessionoftheirliberty，voluntarilymadechoiceofthevictorfortheirchief。Fortillthen，whatevercapitulationmayhavebeenmadebeingfoundedonviolence，andthereforeipsofactovoid，therecouldnothavebeenonthishypothesiseitherarealsocietyorbodypolitic，oranylawotherthanthatofthestrongest。Secondly：
becausethewordsstrongandweakare，inthesecondcase，ambiguous;forduringtheintervalbetweentheestablishmentofarightofproperty，orprioroccupancy，andthatofpoliticalgovernment，themeaningofthesewordsisbetterexpressedbythetermsrichandpoor：because，infact，beforetheinstitutionoflaws，menhadnootherwayofreducingtheirequalstosubmission，thanbyattackingtheirgoods，ormakingsomeoftheirownovertothem。Thirdly：because，asthepoorhadnothingbuttheirfreedomtolose，itwouldhavebeeninthehighestdegreeabsurdforthemtoresignvoluntarilytheonlygoodtheystillenjoyed，withoutgettinganythinginexchange：whereastherichhavingfeelings，ifImaysoexpressmyself，ineverypartoftheirpossessions，itwasmucheasiertoharmthem，andthereforemorenecessaryforthemtotakeprecautionsagainstit;and，inshort，becauseitismorereasonabletosupposeathingtohavebeeninventedbythosetowhomitwouldbeofservice，thanbythosewhomitmusthaveharmed。
Governmenthad，initsinfancy，noregularandconstantform。Thewantofexperienceandphilosophypreventedmenfromseeinganybutpresentinconveniences，andtheythoughtofprovidingagainstothersonlyastheypresentedthemselves。Inspiteoftheendeavoursofthewisestlegislators，thepoliticalstateremainedimperfect，becauseitwaslittlemorethantheworkofchance;and，asithadbegunill，thoughtimerevealeditsdefectsandsuggestedremedies，theoriginalfaultswereneverrepaired。
Itwascontinuallybeingpatchedup，whenthefirsttaskshouldhavebeentogetthesiteclearedandalltheoldmaterialsremoved，aswasdonebyLycurgusatSparta，ifastableandlastingedificewastobeerected。
