第6章

HERMOGENES：Verylikely。 SOCRATES：Yes，verylikely。Butstilltheenquirydemandsourearnestattentionandwemustnotflinch。Forweshouldremember，thatifapersongoonanalysingnamesintowords，andenquiringalsointotheelementsoutofwhichthewordsareformed，andkeepsonalwaysrepeatingthisprocess，hewhohastoanswerhimmustatlastgiveuptheenquiryindespair。 HERMOGENES：Verytrue。 SOCRATES：Andatwhatpointoughthetoloseheartandgiveuptheenquiry？Musthenotstopwhenhecomestothenameswhicharetheelementsofallothernamesandsentences；forthesecannotbesupposedtobemadeupofothernames？Thewordagathon（good），forexample，is，asweweresaying，acompoundofagastos（admirable）andthoos（swift）。Andprobablythoosismadeupofotherelements，andtheseagainofothers。 Butifwetakeawordwhichisincapableoffurtherresolution，thenweshallberightinsayingthatwehaveatlastreachedaprimaryelement，whichneednotberesolvedanyfurther。 HERMOGENES：Ibelieveyoutobeintheright。 SOCRATES：Andsupposethenamesaboutwhichyouarenowaskingshouldturnouttobeprimaryelements，mustnottheirtruthorlawbeexaminedaccordingtosomenewmethod？ HERMOGENES：Verylikely。 SOCRATES：Quiteso，Hermogenes；allthathasprecededwouldleadtothisconclusion。Andif，asIthink，theconclusionistrue，thenIshallagainsaytoyou，comeandhelpme，thatImaynotfallintosomeabsurdityinstatingtheprincipleofprimarynames。 HERMOGENES：Letmehear，andIwilldomybesttoassistyou。 SOCRATES：Ithinkthatyouwillacknowledgewithme，thatoneprincipleisapplicabletoallnames，primaryaswellassecondary——whentheyareregardedsimplyasnames，thereisnodifferenceinthem。 HERMOGENES：Certainlynot。 SOCRATES：Allthenamesthatwehavebeenexplainingwereintendedtoindicatethenatureofthings。 HERMOGENES：Ofcourse。 SOCRATES：Andthatthisistrueoftheprimaryquiteasmuchasofthesecondarynames，isimpliedintheirbeingnames。 HERMOGENES：Surely。 SOCRATES：Butthesecondary，asIconceive，derivetheirsignificancefromtheprimary。 HERMOGENES：Thatisevident。 SOCRATES：Verygood；butthenhowdotheprimarynameswhichprecedeanalysisshowthenaturesofthings，asfarastheycanbeshown；whichtheymustdo，iftheyaretoberealnames？AndhereIwillaskyouaquestion：Supposethatwehadnovoiceortongue，andwantedtocommunicatewithoneanother，shouldwenot，likethedeafanddumb，makesignswiththehandsandheadandtherestofthebody？ HERMOGENES：Therewouldbenochoice，Socrates。 SOCRATES：Weshouldimitatethenatureofthething；theelevationofourhandstoheavenwouldmeanlightnessandupwardness；heavinessanddownwardnesswouldbeexpressedbylettingthemdroptotheground；ifweweredescribingtherunningofahorse，oranyotheranimal，weshouldmakeourbodiesandtheirgesturesaslikeaswecouldtothem。 HERMOGENES：Idonotseethatwecoulddoanythingelse。 SOCRATES：Wecouldnot；forbybodilyimitationonlycanthebodyeverexpressanything。 HERMOGENES：Verytrue。 SOCRATES：Andwhenwewanttoexpressourselves，eitherwiththevoice，ortongue，ormouth，theexpressionissimplytheirimitationofthatwhichwewanttoexpress。 HERMOGENES：Itmustbeso，Ithink。 SOCRATES：Thenanameisavocalimitationofthatwhichthevocalimitatornamesorimitates？ HERMOGENES：Ithinkso。 SOCRATES：Nay，myfriend，Iamdisposedtothinkthatwehavenotreachedthetruthasyet。 HERMOGENES：Whynot？ SOCRATES：Becauseifwehaveweshallbeobligedtoadmitthatthepeoplewhoimitatesheep，orcocks，orotheranimals，namethatwhichtheyimitate。 HERMOGENES：Quitetrue。 SOCRATES：ThencouldIhavebeenrightinwhatIwassaying？ HERMOGENES：Inmyopinion，no。ButIwishthatyouwouldtellme，Socrates，whatsortofanimitationisaname？ SOCRATES：Inthefirstplace，Ishouldreply，notamusicalimitation，althoughthatisalsovocal；nor，again，animitationofwhatmusicimitates；these，inmyjudgment，wouldnotbenaming。Letmeputthematterasfollows：Allobjectshavesoundandfigure，andmanyhavecolour？ HERMOGENES：Certainly。 SOCRATES：Buttheartofnamingappearsnottobeconcernedwithimitationsofthiskind；theartswhichhavetodowiththemaremusicanddrawing？ HERMOGENES：True。 SOCRATES：Again，istherenotanessenceofeachthing，justasthereisacolour，orsound？Andistherenotanessenceofcolourandsoundaswellasofanythingelsewhichmaybesaidtohaveanessence？ HERMOGENES：Ishouldthinkso。 SOCRATES：Well，andifanyonecouldexpresstheessenceofeachthinginlettersandsyllables，wouldhenotexpressthenatureofeachthing？ HERMOGENES：Quiteso。 SOCRATES：Themusicianandthepainterwerethetwonameswhichyougavetothetwootherimitators。Whatwillthisimitatorbecalled？ HERMOGENES：Iimagine，Socrates，thathemustbethenamer，orname-giver，ofwhomweareinsearch。 SOCRATES：Ifthisistrue，thenIthinkthatweareinaconditiontoconsiderthenamesron（stream），ienai（togo），schesis（retention），aboutwhichyouwereasking；andwemayseewhetherthenamerhasgraspedthenatureoftheminlettersandsyllablesinsuchamannerastoimitatetheessenceornot。 HERMOGENES：Verygood。 SOCRATES：Butarethesetheonlyprimarynames，orarethereothers？ HERMOGENES：Theremustbeothers。 SOCRATES：SoIshouldexpect。Buthowshallwefurtheranalysethem，andwheredoestheimitatorbegin？Imitationoftheessenceismadebysyllablesandletters；oughtwenot，therefore，firsttoseparatetheletters，justasthosewhoarebeginningrhythmfirstdistinguishthepowersofelementary，andthenofcompoundsounds，andwhentheyhavedoneso，butnotbefore，theyproceedtotheconsiderationofrhythms？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Mustwenotbegininthesamewaywithletters；firstseparatingthevowels，andthentheconsonantsandmutes（letterswhichareneithervowelsnorsemivowels），intoclasses，accordingtothereceiveddistinctionsofthelearned；alsothesemivowels，whichareneithervowels，noryetmutes；anddistinguishingintoclassesthevowelsthemselves？Andwhenwehaveperfectedtheclassificationofthings，weshallgivethemnames，andseewhether，asinthecaseofletters，thereareanyclassestowhichtheymaybeallreferred（cf。Phaedrus）；andhenceweshallseetheirnatures，andsee，too，whethertheyhaveinthemclassesasthereareintheletters；andwhenwehavewellconsideredallthis，weshallknowhowtoapplythemtowhattheyresemble——whetheroneletterisusedtodenoteonething，orwhetherthereistobeanadmixtureofseveralofthem；just，asinpainting，thepainterwhowantstodepictanythingsometimesusespurpleonly，oranyothercolour，andsometimesmixesupseveralcolours，ashismethodiswhenhehastopaintfleshcolouroranythingofthatkind——heuseshiscoloursashisfiguresappeartorequirethem；andso，too，weshallapplyletterstotheexpressionofobjects，eithersingleletterswhenrequired，orseveralletters；andsoweshallformsyllables，astheyarecalled，andfromsyllablesmakenounsandverbs；andthus，atlast，fromthecombinationsofnounsandverbsarriveatlanguage，largeandfairandwhole；andasthepaintermadeafigure，evensoshallwemakespeechbytheartofthenamerortherhetorician，orbysomeotherart。 NotthatIamliterallyspeakingofourselves，butIwascarriedaway—— meaningtosaythatthiswasthewayinwhich（notwebut）theancientsformedlanguage，andwhattheyputtogetherwemusttaketopiecesinlikemanner，ifwearetoattainascientificviewofthewholesubject，andwemustseewhethertheprimary，andalsowhetherthesecondaryelementsarerightlygivenornot，foriftheyarenot，thecompositionofthem，mydearHermogenes，willbeasorrypieceofwork，andinthewrongdirection。 HERMOGENES：That，Socrates，Icanquitebelieve。 SOCRATES：Well，butdoyousupposethatyouwillbeabletoanalysetheminthisway？forIamcertainthatIshouldnot。 HERMOGENES：MuchlessamIlikelytobeable。 SOCRATES：Shallweleavethem，then？orshallweseektodiscover，ifwecan，somethingaboutthem，accordingtothemeasureofourability，sayingbywayofpreface，asIsaidbeforeoftheGods，thatofthetruthaboutthemweknownothing，anddobutentertainhumannotionsofthem。Andinthispresentenquiry，letussaytoourselves，beforeweproceed，thatthehighermethodistheonewhichweorotherswhowouldanalyselanguagetoanygoodpurposemustfollow；butunderthecircumstances，asmensay，wemustdoaswellaswecan。Whatdoyouthink？ HERMOGENES：Iverymuchapprove。 SOCRATES：Thatobjectsshouldbeimitatedinlettersandsyllables，andsofindexpression，mayappearridiculous，Hermogenes，butitcannotbeavoided——thereisnobetterprincipletowhichwecanlookforthetruthoffirstnames。Deprivedofthis，wemusthaverecoursetodivinehelp，likethetragicpoets，whoinanyperplexityhavetheirgodswaitingintheair； andmustgetoutofourdifficultyinlikefashion，bysayingthat’theGodsgavethefirstnames，andthereforetheyareright。’Thiswillbethebestcontrivance，orperhapsthatothernotionmaybeevenbetterstill，ofderivingthemfromsomebarbarouspeople，forthebarbariansareolderthanweare；orwemaysaythatantiquityhascastaveiloverthem，whichisthesamesortofexcuseasthelast；forallthesearenotreasonsbutonlyingeniousexcusesforhavingnoreasonsconcerningthetruthofwords。Andyetanysortofignoranceoffirstorprimitivenamesinvolvesanignoranceofsecondarywords；fortheycanonlybeexplainedbytheprimary。Clearlythentheprofessoroflanguagesshouldbeabletogiveaverylucidexplanationoffirstnames，orlethimbeassuredhewillonlytalknonsenseabouttherest。Doyounotsupposethistobetrue？ HERMOGENES：Certainly，Socrates。 SOCRATES：Myfirstnotionsoforiginalnamesaretrulywildandridiculous，thoughIhavenoobjectiontoimpartthemtoyouifyoudesire，andIhopethatyouwillcommunicatetomeinreturnanythingbetterwhichyoumayhave。 HERMOGENES：Fearnot；Iwilldomybest。 SOCRATES：Inthefirstplace，theletterrhoappearstometobethegeneralinstrumentexpressingallmotion（kinesis）。ButIhavenotyetexplainedthemeaningofthislatterword，whichisjustiesis（going）；fortheletteretawasnotinuseamongtheancients，whoonlyemployedepsilon；andtherootiskiein，whichisaforeignform，thesameasienai。 Andtheoldwordkinesiswillbecorrectlygivenasiesisincorrespondingmodernletters。Assumingthisforeignrootkiein，andallowingforthechangeoftheetaandtheinsertionofthenu，wehavekinesis，whichshouldhavebeenkieinsisoreisis；andstasisisthenegativeofienai（oreisis），andhasbeenimprovedintostasis。Nowtheletterrho，asIwassaying，appearedtotheimposerofnamesanexcellentinstrumentfortheexpressionofmotion；andhefrequentlyusestheletterforthispurpose： forexample，intheactualwordsreinandroeherepresentsmotionbyrho； alsointhewordstromos（trembling），trachus（rugged）；andagain，inwordssuchaskrouein（strike），thrauein（crush），ereikein（bruise），thruptein（break），kermatixein（crumble），rumbein（whirl）：ofallthesesortsofmovementshegenerallyfindsanexpressionintheletterR，because，asI imagine，hehadobservedthatthetonguewasmostagitatedandleastatrestinthepronunciationofthisletter，whichhethereforeusedinordertoexpressmotion，justasbytheletteriotaheexpressesthesubtleelementswhichpassthroughallthings。Thisiswhyheusestheletteriotaasimitativeofmotion，ienai，iesthai。Andthereisanotherclassofletters，phi，psi，sigma，andxi，ofwhichthepronunciationisaccompaniedbygreatexpenditureofbreath；theseareusedintheimitationofsuchnotionsaspsuchron（shivering），xeon（seething），seiesthai，（tobeshaken），seismos（shock），andarealwaysintroducedbythegiverofnameswhenhewantstoimitatewhatisphusodes（windy）。Heseemstohavethoughtthattheclosingandpressureofthetongueintheutteranceofdeltaandtauwasexpressiveofbindingandrestinaplace：hefurtherobservedtheliquidmovementoflambda，inthepronunciationofwhichthetongueslips，andinthishefoundtheexpressionofsmoothness，asinleios（level），andinthewordoliothanein（toslip）itself，liparon（sleek），inthewordkollodes（gluey），andthelike：theheaviersoundofgammadetainedtheslippingtongue，andtheunionofthetwogavethenotionofaglutinousclammynature，asinglischros，glukus，gloiodes。 Thenuheobservedtobesoundedfromwithin，andthereforetohaveanotionofinwardness；henceheintroducedthesoundinendosandentos： alphaheassignedtotheexpressionofsize，andnuoflength，becausetheyaregreatletters：omicronwasthesignofroundness，andthereforethereisplentyofomicronmixedupinthewordgoggulon（round）。Thusdidthelegislator，reducingallthingsintolettersandsyllables，andimpressingonthemnamesandsigns，andoutofthembyimitationcompoundingothersigns。Thatismyview，Hermogenes，ofthetruthofnames；butIshouldliketohearwhatCratylushasmoretosay。 HERMOGENES：But，Socrates，asIwastellingyoubefore，Cratylusmystifiesme；hesaysthatthereisafitnessofnames，butheneverexplainswhatisthisfitness，sothatIcannottellwhetherhisobscurityisintendedornot。Tellmenow，Cratylus，hereinthepresenceofSocrates，doyouagreeinwhatSocrateshasbeensayingaboutnames，orhaveyousomethingbetterofyourown？andifyouhave，tellmewhatyourviewis，andthenyouwilleitherlearnofSocrates，orSocratesandIwilllearnofyou。 CRATYLUS：Well，butsurely，Hermogenes，youdonotsupposethatyoucanlearn，orIexplain，anysubjectofimportanceallinamoment；atanyrate，notsuchasubjectaslanguage，whichis，perhaps，theverygreatestofall。 HERMOGENES：No，indeed；but，asHesiodsays，andIagreewithhim，’toaddlittletolittle’isworthwhile。And，therefore，ifyouthinkthatyoucanaddanythingatall，howeversmall，toourknowledge，takealittletroubleandobligeSocrates，andmetoo，whocertainlyhaveaclaimuponyou。 SOCRATES：Iambynomeanspositive，Cratylus，intheviewwhichHermogenesandmyselfhaveworkedout；andthereforedonothesitatetosaywhatyouthink，whichifitbebetterthanmyownviewIshallgladlyaccept。AndIshouldnotbeatallsurprizedtofindthatyouhavefoundsomebetternotion。Foryouhaveevidentlyreflectedonthesemattersandhavehadteachers，andifyouhavereallyabettertheoryofthetruthofnames，youmaycountmeinthenumberofyourdisciples。 CRATYLUS：Youareright，Socrates，insayingthatIhavemadeastudyofthesematters，andImightpossiblyconvertyouintoadisciple。ButI fearthattheoppositeismoreprobable，andIalreadyfindmyselfmovedtosaytoyouwhatAchillesinthe’Prayers’saystoAjax，—— ’IllustriousAjax，sonofTelamon，lordofthepeople，Youappeartohavespokeninallthingsmuchtomymind。’ Andyou，Socrates，appeartometobeanoracle，andtogiveanswersmuchtomymind，whetheryouareinspiredbyEuthyphro，orwhethersomeMusemayhavelongbeenaninhabitantofyourbreast，unconsciouslytoyourself。 SOCRATES：ExcellentCratylus，Ihavelongbeenwonderingatmyownwisdom； Icannottrustmyself。AndIthinkthatIoughttostopandaskmyselfWhatamIsaying？forthereisnothingworsethanself-deception——whenthedeceiverisalwaysathomeandalwayswithyou——itisquiteterrible，andthereforeIoughtoftentoretracemystepsandendeavourto’lookforeandaft，’inthewordsoftheaforesaidHomer。Andnowletmesee；wherearewe？Havewenotbeensayingthatthecorrectnameindicatesthenatureofthething：——hasthispropositionbeensufficientlyproven？ CRATYLUS：Yes，Socrates，whatyousay，asIamdisposedtothink，isquitetrue。 SOCRATES：Names，then，aregiveninordertoinstruct？ CRATYLUS：Certainly。 SOCRATES：Andnamingisanart，andhasartificers？ CRATYLUS：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andwhoarethey？ CRATYLUS：Thelegislators，ofwhomyouspokeatfirst。 SOCRATES：Anddoesthisartgrowupamongmenlikeotherarts？LetmeexplainwhatImean：ofpainters，somearebetterandsomeworse？ CRATYLUS：Yes。 SOCRATES：Thebetterpaintersexecutetheirworks，Imeantheirfigures，better，andtheworseexecutethemworse；andofbuildersalso，thebettersortbuildfairerhouses，andtheworsebuildthemworse。 CRATYLUS：True。 SOCRATES：Andamonglegislators，therearesomewhodotheirworkbetterandsomeworse？ CRATYLUS：No；thereIdonotagreewithyou。 SOCRATES：Thenyoudonotthinkthatsomelawsarebetterandothersworse？ CRATYLUS：No，indeed。 SOCRATES：Orthatonenameisbetterthananother？ CRATYLUS：Certainlynot。 SOCRATES：Thenallnamesarerightlyimposed？ CRATYLUS：Yes，iftheyarenamesatall。 SOCRATES：Well，whatdoyousaytothenameofourfriendHermogenes，whichwasmentionedbefore：——assumingthathehasnothingofthenatureofHermesinhim，shallwesaythatthisisawrongname，ornothisnameatall？ CRATYLUS：IshouldreplythatHermogenesisnothisnameatall，butonlyappearstobehis，andisreallythenameofsomebodyelse，whohasthenaturewhichcorrespondstoit。 SOCRATES：AndifamanweretocallhimHermogenes，wouldhenotbeevenspeakingfalsely？FortheremaybeadoubtwhetheryoucancallhimHermogenes，ifheisnot。 CRATYLUS：Whatdoyoumean？ SOCRATES：Areyoumaintainingthatfalsehoodisimpossible？ForifthisisyourmeaningIshouldanswer，thattherehavebeenplentyofliarsinallages。 CRATYLUS：Why，Socrates，howcanamansaythatwhichisnot？——saysomethingandyetsaynothing？Forisnotfalsehoodsayingthethingwhichisnot？ SOCRATES：Yourargument，friend，istoosubtleforamanofmyage。ButI shouldliketoknowwhetheryouareoneofthosephilosopherswhothinkthatfalsehoodmaybespokenbutnotsaid？ CRATYLUS：Neitherspokennorsaid。 SOCRATES：Norutterednoraddressed？Forexample：Ifaperson，salutingyouinaforeigncountry，weretotakeyourhandandsay：’Hail，Athenianstranger，Hermogenes，sonofSmicrion’——thesewords，whetherspoken，said，uttered，oraddressed，wouldhavenoapplicationtoyoubutonlytoourfriendHermogenes，orperhapstonobodyatall？ CRATYLUS：Inmyopinion，Socrates，thespeakerwouldonlybetalkingnonsense。 SOCRATES：Well，butthatwillbequiteenoughforme，ifyouwilltellmewhetherthenonsensewouldbetrueorfalse，orpartlytrueandpartlyfalse：——whichisallthatIwanttoknow。 CRATYLUS：Ishouldsaythathewouldbeputtinghimselfinmotiontonopurpose；andthathiswordswouldbeanunmeaningsoundlikethenoiseofhammeringatabrazenpot。 SOCRATES：Butletussee，Cratylus，whetherwecannotfindameeting- point，foryouwouldadmitthatthenameisnotthesamewiththethingnamed？ CRATYLUS：Ishould。 SOCRATES：Andwouldyoufurtheracknowledgethatthenameisanimitationofthething？ CRATYLUS：Certainly。 SOCRATES：Andyouwouldsaythatpicturesarealsoimitationsofthings，butinanotherway？ CRATYLUS：Yes。 SOCRATES：Ibelieveyoumayberight，butIdonotrightlyunderstandyou。 Pleasetosay，then，whetherbothsortsofimitation（Imeanbothpicturesorwords）arenotequallyattributableandapplicabletothethingsofwhichtheyaretheimitation。 CRATYLUS：Theyare。 SOCRATES：Firstlookatthematterthus：youmayattributethelikenessofthemantotheman，andofthewomantothewoman；andsoon？ CRATYLUS：Certainly。 SOCRATES：Andconverselyyoumayattributethelikenessofthemantothewoman，andofthewomantotheman？ CRATYLUS：Verytrue。 SOCRATES：Andarebothmodesofassigningthemright，oronlythefirst？ CRATYLUS：Onlythefirst。 SOCRATES：Thatistosay，themodeofassignmentwhichattributestoeachthatwhichbelongstothemandislikethem？ CRATYLUS：Thatismyview。 SOCRATES：Nowthen，asIamdesirousthatwebeingfriendsshouldhaveagoodunderstandingabouttheargument，letmestatemyviewtoyou：thefirstmodeofassignment，whetherappliedtofiguresortonames，Icallright，andwhenappliedtonamesonly，trueaswellasright；andtheothermodeofgivingandassigningthenamewhichisunlike，Icallwrong，andinthecaseofnames，falseaswellaswrong。 CRATYLUS：Thatmaybetrue，Socrates，inthecaseofpictures；theymaybewronglyassigned；butnotinthecaseofnames——theymustbealwaysright。 SOCRATES：Why，whatisthedifference？MayInotgotoamanandsaytohim，’Thisisyourpicture，’showinghimhisownlikeness，orperhapsthelikenessofawoman；andwhenIsay’show，’Imeanbringbeforethesenseofsight。 CRATYLUS：Certainly。 SOCRATES：AndmayInotgotohimagain，andsay，’Thisisyourname’？—— forthename，likethepicture，isanimitation。MayInotsaytohim—— ’Thisisyourname’？andmayInotthenbringtohissenseofhearingtheimitationofhimself，whenIsay，’Thisisaman’；orofafemaleofthehumanspecies，whenIsay，’Thisisawoman，’asthecasemaybe？Isnotallthatquitepossible？ CRATYLUS：Iwouldfainagreewithyou，Socrates；andthereforeIsay，Granted。 SOCRATES：Thatisverygoodofyou，ifIamright，whichneedhardlybedisputedatpresent。ButifIcanassignnamesaswellaspicturestoobjects，therightassignmentofthemwemaycalltruth，andthewrongassignmentofthemfalsehood。Nowiftherebesuchawrongassignmentofnames，theremayalsobeawrongorinappropriateassignmentofverbs；andifofnamesandverbsthenofthesentences，whicharemadeupofthem。 Whatdoyousay，Cratylus？ CRATYLUS：Iagree；andthinkthatwhatyousayisverytrue。 SOCRATES：Andfurther，primitivenounsmaybecomparedtopictures，andinpicturesyoumayeithergivealltheappropriatecoloursandfigures，oryoumaynotgivethemall——somemaybewanting；ortheremaybetoomanyortoomuchofthem——maytherenot？ CRATYLUS：Verytrue。 SOCRATES：Andhewhogivesallgivesaperfectpictureorfigure；andhewhotakesawayoraddsalsogivesapictureorfigure，butnotagoodone。 CRATYLUS：Yes。 SOCRATES：Inlikemanner，hewhobysyllablesandlettersimitatesthenatureofthings，ifhegivesallthatisappropriatewillproduceagoodimage，orinotherwordsaname；butifhesubtractsorperhapsaddsalittle，hewillmakeanimagebutnotagoodone；whenceIinferthatsomenamesarewellandothersillmade。 CRATYLUS：Thatistrue。 SOCRATES：Thentheartistofnamesmaybesometimesgood，orhemaybebad？ CRATYLUS：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andthisartistofnamesiscalledthelegislator？ CRATYLUS：Yes。 SOCRATES：Thenlikeotherartiststhelegislatormaybegoodorhemaybebad；itmustsurelybesoifourformeradmissionsholdgood？ CRATYLUS：Verytrue，Socrates；butthecaseoflanguage，yousee，isdifferent；forwhenbythehelpofgrammarweassignthelettersalphaorbeta，oranyotherletterstoacertainname，then，ifweadd，orsubtract，ormisplacealetter，thenamewhichiswrittenisnotonlywrittenwrongly，butnotwrittenatall；andinanyofthesecasesbecomesotherthananame。 SOCRATES：ButIdoubtwhetheryourviewisaltogethercorrect，Cratylus。 CRATYLUS：Howso？ SOCRATES：Ibelievethatwhatyousaymaybetrueaboutnumbers，whichmustbejustwhattheyare，ornotbeatall；forexample，thenumbertenatoncebecomesotherthantenifaunitbeaddedorsubtracted，andsoofanyothernumber：butthisdoesnotapplytothatwhichisqualitativeortoanythingwhichisrepresentedunderanimage。Ishouldsayratherthattheimage，ifexpressingineverypointtheentirereality，wouldnolongerbeanimage。Letussupposetheexistenceoftwoobjects：oneofthemshallbeCratylus，andtheothertheimageofCratylus；andwewillsuppose，further，thatsomeGodmakesnotonlyarepresentationsuchasapainterwouldmakeofyouroutwardformandcolour，butalsocreatesaninwardorganizationlikeyours，havingthesamewarmthandsoftness；andintothisinfusesmotion，andsoul，andmind，suchasyouhave，andinawordcopiesallyourqualities，andplacesthembyyouinanotherform； wouldyousaythatthiswasCratylusandtheimageofCratylus，orthatthereweretwoCratyluses？ CRATYLUS：IshouldsaythatthereweretwoCratyluses。 SOCRATES：Thenyousee，myfriend，thatwemustfindsomeotherprincipleoftruthinimages，andalsoinnames；andnotinsistthatanimageisnolongeranimagewhensomethingisaddedorsubtracted。Doyounotperceivethatimagesareveryfarfromhavingqualitieswhicharetheexactcounterpartoftherealitieswhichtheyrepresent？ CRATYLUS：Yes，Isee。 SOCRATES：Butthenhowridiculouswouldbetheeffectofnamesonthings，iftheywereexactlythesamewiththem！Fortheywouldbethedoublesofthem，andnoonewouldbeabletodeterminewhichwerethenamesandwhichweretherealities。 CRATYLUS：Quitetrue。 SOCRATES：Thenfearnot，buthavethecouragetoadmitthatonenamemaybecorrectlyandanotherincorrectlygiven；anddonotinsistthatthenameshallbeexactlythesamewiththething；butallowtheoccasionalsubstitutionofawrongletter，andifofaletteralsoofanouninasentence，andifofanouninasentencealsoofasentencewhichisnotappropriatetothematter，andacknowledgethatthethingmaybenamed，anddescribed，solongasthegeneralcharacterofthethingwhichyouaredescribingisretained；andthis，asyouwillremember，wasremarkedbyHermogenesandmyselfintheparticularinstanceofthenamesoftheletters。 CRATYLUS：Yes，Iremember。 SOCRATES：Good；andwhenthegeneralcharacterispreserved，evenifsomeoftheproperlettersarewanting，stillthethingissignified；——well，ifallthelettersaregiven；notwell，whenonlyafewofthemaregiven。I thinkthatwehadbetteradmitthis，lestwebepunishedliketravellersinAeginawhowanderaboutthestreetlateatnight：andbelikewisetoldbytruthherselfthatwehavearrivedtoolate；orifnot，youmustfindoutsomenewnotionofcorrectnessofnames，andnolongermaintainthatanameistheexpressionofathinginlettersorsyllables；forifyousayboth，youwillbeinconsistentwithyourself。 CRATYLUS：Iquiteacknowledge，Socrates，whatyousaytobeveryreasonable。 SOCRATES：Thenasweareagreedthusfar，letusaskourselveswhetheranamerightlyimposedoughtnottohavetheproperletters。 CRATYLUS：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andtheproperlettersarethosewhicharelikethethings？ CRATYLUS：Yes。 SOCRATES：Enoughthenofnameswhicharerightlygiven。Andinnameswhichareincorrectlygiven，thegreaterpartmaybesupposedtobemadeupofproperandsimilarletters，ortherewouldbenolikeness；buttherewillbelikewiseapartwhichisimproperandspoilsthebeautyandformationoftheword：youwouldadmitthat？ CRATYLUS：Therewouldbenouse，Socrates，inmyquarrellingwithyou，sinceIcannotbesatisfiedthatanamewhichisincorrectlygivenisanameatall。 SOCRATES：Doyouadmitanametobetherepresentationofathing？ CRATYLUS：Yes，Ido。 SOCRATES：Butdoyounotallowthatsomenounsareprimitive，andsomederived？ CRATYLUS：Yes，Ido。 SOCRATES：Thenifyouadmitthatprimitiveorfirstnounsarerepresentationsofthings，isthereanybetterwayofframingrepresentationsthanbyassimilatingthemtotheobjectsasmuchasyoucan；ordoyoupreferthenotionofHermogenesandofmanyothers，whosaythatnamesareconventional，andhaveameaningtothosewhohaveagreedaboutthem，andwhohavepreviousknowledgeofthethingsintendedbythem，andthatconventionistheonlyprinciple；andwhetheryouabidebyourpresentconvention，ormakeanewandoppositeone，accordingtowhichyoucallsmallgreatandgreatsmall——that，theywouldsay，makesnodifference，ifyouareonlyagreed。Whichofthesetwonotionsdoyouprefer？ CRATYLUS：Representationbylikeness，Socrates，isinfinitelybetterthanrepresentationbyanychancesign。 SOCRATES：Verygood：butifthenameistobelikethething，thelettersoutofwhichthefirstnamesarecomposedmustalsobelikethings。 Returningtotheimageofthepicture，Iwouldask，Howcouldanyoneevercomposeapicturewhichwouldbelikeanythingatall，iftherewerenotpigmentsinnaturewhichresembledthethingsimitated，andoutofwhichthepictureiscomposed？ CRATYLUS：Impossible。 SOCRATES：Nomorecouldnameseverresembleanyactuallyexistingthing，unlesstheoriginalelementsofwhichtheyarecompoundedboresomedegreeofresemblancetotheobjectsofwhichthenamesaretheimitation：Andtheoriginalelementsareletters？ CRATYLUS：Yes。 SOCRATES：LetmenowinviteyoutoconsiderwhatHermogenesandIweresayingaboutsounds。Doyouagreewithmethattheletterrhoisexpressiveofrapidity，motion，andhardness？Werewerightorwronginsayingso？ CRATYLUS：Ishouldsaythatyouwereright。 SOCRATES：Andthatlamdawasexpressiveofsmoothness，andsoftness，andthelike？ CRATYLUS：Thereagainyouwereright。 SOCRATES：Andyet，asyouareaware，thatwhichiscalledbyussklerotes，isbytheEretrianscalledskleroter。 CRATYLUS：Verytrue。 SOCRATES：Butarethelettersrhoandsigmaequivalents；andistherethesamesignificancetothemintheterminationrho，whichthereistousinsigma，oristherenosignificancetooneofus？ CRATYLUS：Nay，surelythereisasignificancetobothofus。 SOCRATES：Inasfarastheyarelike，orinasfarastheyareunlike？ CRATYLUS：Inasfarastheyarelike。 SOCRATES：Aretheyaltogetheralike？ CRATYLUS：Yes；forthepurposeofexpressingmotion。 SOCRATES：Andwhatdoyousayoftheinsertionofthelamda？forthatisexpressivenotofhardnessbutofsoftness。 CRATYLUS：Why，perhapstheletterlamdaiswronglyinserted，Socrates，andshouldbealteredintorho，asyouweresayingtoHermogenesandinmyopinionrightly，whenyouspokeofaddingandsubtractinglettersuponoccasion。 SOCRATES：Good。Butstillthewordisintelligibletobothofus；whenI sayskleros（hard），youknowwhatImean。 CRATYLUS：Yes，mydearfriend，andtheexplanationofthatiscustom。 SOCRATES：Andwhatiscustombutconvention？IutterasoundwhichI understand，andyouknowthatIunderstandthemeaningofthesound：thisiswhatyouaresaying？ CRATYLUS：Yes。 SOCRATES：AndifwhenIspeakyouknowmymeaning，thereisanindicationgivenbymetoyou？ CRATYLUS：Yes。 SOCRATES：Thisindicationofmymeaningmayproceedfromunlikeaswellasfromlike，forexampleinthelamdaofsklerotes。Butifthisistrue，thenyouhavemadeaconventionwithyourself，andthecorrectnessofanameturnsouttobeconvention，sinceletterswhichareunlikeareindicativeequallywiththosewhicharelike，iftheyaresanctionedbycustomandconvention。Andevensupposingthatyoudistinguishcustomfromconventioneversomuch，stillyoumustsaythatthesignificationofwordsisgivenbycustomandnotbylikeness，forcustommayindicatebytheunlikeaswellasbythelike。Butasweareagreedthusfar，Cratylus（forIshallassumethatyoursilencegivesconsent），thencustomandconventionmustbesupposedtocontributetotheindicationofourthoughts；forsupposewetaketheinstanceofnumber，howcanyoueverimagine，mygoodfriend，thatyouwillfindnamesresemblingeveryindividualnumber，unlessyouallowthatwhichyoutermconventionandagreementtohaveauthorityindeterminingthecorrectnessofnames？I quiteagreewithyouthatwordsshouldasfaraspossibleresemblethings； butIfearthatthisdragginginofresemblance，asHermogenessays，isashabbything，whichhastobesupplementedbythemechanicalaidofconventionwithaviewtocorrectness；forIbelievethatifwecouldalways，oralmostalways，uselikenesses，whichareperfectlyappropriate，thiswouldbethemostperfectstateoflanguage；astheoppositeisthemostimperfect。Butletmeaskyou，whatistheforceofnames，andwhatistheuseofthem？ CRATYLUS：Theuseofnames，Socrates，asIshouldimagine，istoinform： thesimpletruthis，thathewhoknowsnamesknowsalsothethingswhichareexpressedbythem。 SOCRATES：Isupposeyoumeantosay，Cratylus，thatasthenameis，soalsoisthething；andthathewhoknowstheonewillalsoknowtheother，becausetheyaresimilars，andallsimilarsfallunderthesameartorscience；andthereforeyouwouldsaythathewhoknowsnameswillalsoknowthings。 CRATYLUS：ThatispreciselywhatImean。 SOCRATES：Butletusconsiderwhatisthenatureofthisinformationaboutthingswhich，accordingtoyou，isgivenusbynames。Isitthebestsortofinformation？oristhereanyother？Whatdoyousay？ CRATYLUS：Ibelievethattobeboththeonlyandthebestsortofinformationaboutthem；therecanbenoother。 SOCRATES：Butdoyoubelievethatinthediscoveryofthem，hewhodiscoversthenamesdiscoversalsothethings；oristhisonlythemethodofinstruction，andistheresomeothermethodofenquiryanddiscovery。 CRATYLUS：Icertainlybelievethatthemethodsofenquiryanddiscoveryareofthesamenatureasinstruction。 SOCRATES：Well，butdoyounotsee，Cratylus，thathewhofollowsnamesinthesearchafterthings，andanalysestheirmeaning，isingreatdangerofbeingdeceived？ CRATYLUS：Howso？ SOCRATES：Whyclearlyhewhofirstgavenamesgavethemaccordingtohisconceptionofthethingswhichtheysignified——didhenot？ CRATYLUS：True。 SOCRATES：Andifhisconceptionwaserroneous，andhegavenamesaccordingtohisconception，inwhatpositionshallwewhoarehisfollowersfindourselves？Shallwenotbedeceivedbyhim？ CRATYLUS：But，Socrates，amInotrightinthinkingthathemustsurelyhaveknown；orelse，asIwassaying，hisnameswouldnotbenamesatall？ Andyouhaveaclearproofthathehasnotmissedthetruth，andtheproofis——thatheisperfectlyconsistent。Didyoueverobserveinspeakingthatallthewordswhichyouutterhaveacommoncharacterandpurpose？ SOCRATES：Butthat，friendCratylus，isnoanswer。Forifhedidbegininerror，hemayhaveforcedtheremainderintoagreementwiththeoriginalerrorandwithhimself；therewouldbenothingstrangeinthis，anymorethaningeometricaldiagrams，whichhaveoftenaslightandinvisibleflawinthefirstpartoftheprocess，andareconsistentlymistakeninthelongdeductionswhichfollow。Andthisisthereasonwhyeverymanshouldexpendhischiefthoughtandattentionontheconsiderationofhisfirstprinciples：——aretheyoraretheynotrightlylaiddown？andwhenhehasdulysiftedthem，alltherestwillfollow。NowIshouldbeastonishedtofindthatnamesarereallyconsistent。Andhereletusreverttoourformerdiscussion：Werewenotsayingthatallthingsareinmotionandprogressandflux，andthatthisideaofmotionisexpressedbynames？Doyounotconceivethattobethemeaningofthem？ CRATYLUS：Yes；thatisassuredlytheirmeaning，andthetruemeaning。 SOCRATES：Letusreverttoepisteme（knowledge）andobservehowambiguousthiswordis，seemingrathertosignifystoppingthesoulatthingsthangoingroundwiththem；andthereforeweshouldleavethebeginningasatpresent，andnotrejecttheepsilon，butmakeaninsertionofaniotainsteadofanepsilon（notpioteme，butepiisteme）。Takeanotherexample： bebaion（sure）isclearlytheexpressionofstationandposition，andnotofmotion。Again，thewordistoria（enquiry）bearsuponthefaceofitthestopping（istanai）ofthestream；andthewordpiston（faithful）certainlyindicatescessationofmotion；then，again，mneme（memory），asanyonemaysee，expressesrestinthesoul，andnotmotion。Moreover，wordssuchasamartiaandsumphora，whichhaveabadsense，viewedinthelightoftheiretymologieswillbethesameassunesisandepistemeandotherwordswhichhaveagoodsense（compareomartein，sunienai，epesthai，sumpheresthai）； andmuchthesamemaybesaidofamathiaandakolasia，foramathiamaybeexplainedaseamatheoiontosporeia，andakolasiaaseakolouthiatoispragmasin。Thusthenameswhichintheseinstanceswefindtohavetheworstsense，willturnouttobeframedonthesameprincipleasthosewhichhavethebest。AndanyoneIbelievewhowouldtakethetroublemightfindmanyotherexamplesinwhichthegiverofnamesindicates，notthatthingsareinmotionorprogress，butthattheyareatrest；whichistheoppositeofmotion。 CRATYLUS：Yes，Socrates，butobserve；thegreaternumberexpressmotion。 SOCRATES：Whatofthat，Cratylus？Arewetocountthemlikevotes？andiscorrectnessofnamesthevoiceofthemajority？Arewetosayofwhicheversorttherearemost，thosearethetrueones？ CRATYLUS：No；thatisnotreasonable。 SOCRATES：Certainlynot。Butletushavedonewiththisquestionandproceedtoanother，aboutwhichIshouldliketoknowwhetheryouthinkwithme。Werewenotlatelyacknowledgingthatthefirstgiversofnamesinstates，bothHellenicandbarbarous，werethelegislators，andthattheartwhichgavenameswastheartofthelegislator？ CRATYLUS：Quitetrue。 SOCRATES：Tellme，then，didthefirstlegislators，whowerethegiversofthefirstnames，knowornotknowthethingswhichtheynamed？ CRATYLUS：Theymusthaveknown，Socrates。 SOCRATES：Why，yes，friendCratylus，theycouldhardlyhavebeenignorant。 CRATYLUS：Ishouldsaynot。 SOCRATES：Letusreturntothepointfromwhichwedigressed。Youweresaying，ifyouremember，thathewhogavenamesmusthaveknownthethingswhichhenamed；areyoustillofthatopinion？ CRATYLUS：Iam。 SOCRATES：Andwouldyousaythatthegiverofthefirstnameshadalsoaknowledgeofthethingswhichhenamed？ CRATYLUS：Ishould。 SOCRATES：Buthowcouldhehavelearnedordiscoveredthingsfromnamesiftheprimitivenameswerenotyetgiven？For，ifwearecorrectinourview，theonlywayoflearninganddiscoveringthings，iseithertodiscovernamesforourselvesortolearnthemfromothers。 CRATYLUS：Ithinkthatthereisagooddealinwhatyousay，Socrates。 SOCRATES：Butifthingsareonlytobeknownthroughnames，howcanwesupposethatthegiversofnameshadknowledge，orwerelegislatorsbeforetherewerenamesatall，andthereforebeforetheycouldhaveknownthem？ CRATYLUS：Ibelieve，Socrates，thetrueaccountofthemattertobe，thatapowermorethanhumangavethingstheirfirstnames，andthatthenameswhicharethusgivenarenecessarilytheirtruenames。 SOCRATES：Thenhowcamethegiverofthenames，ifhewasaninspiredbeingorGod，tocontradicthimself？Forwerewenotsayingjustnowthathemadesomenamesexpressiveofrestandothersofmotion？Werewemistaken？ CRATYLUS：ButIsupposeoneofthetwonottobenamesatall。 SOCRATES：Andwhich，then，didhemake，mygoodfriend；thosewhichareexpressiveofrest，orthosewhichareexpressiveofmotion？Thisisapointwhich，asIsaidbefore，cannotbedeterminedbycountingthem。 CRATYLUS：No；notinthatway，Socrates。 SOCRATES：Butifthisisabattleofnames，someofthemassertingthattheyarelikethetruth，otherscontendingthatTHEYare，howorbywhatcriterionarewetodecidebetweenthem？Fortherearenoothernamestowhichappealcanbemade，butobviouslyrecoursemustbehadtoanotherstandardwhich，withoutemployingnames，willmakeclearwhichofthetwoareright；andthismustbeastandardwhichshowsthetruthofthings。 CRATYLUS：Iagree。 SOCRATES：Butifthatistrue，Cratylus，thenIsupposethatthingsmaybeknownwithoutnames？ CRATYLUS：Clearly。 SOCRATES：Buthowwouldyouexpecttoknowthem？Whatotherwaycantherebeofknowingthem，exceptthetrueandnaturalway，throughtheiraffinities，whentheyareakintoeachother，andthroughthemselves？Forthatwhichisotheranddifferentfromthemmustsignifysomethingotheranddifferentfromthem。 CRATYLUS：Whatyouaresayingis，Ithink，true。 SOCRATES：Well，butreflect；havewenotseveraltimesacknowledgedthatnamesrightlygivenarethelikenessesandimagesofthethingswhichtheyname？ CRATYLUS：Yes。 SOCRATES：Letussupposethattoanyextentyoupleaseyoucanlearnthingsthroughthemediumofnames，andsupposealsothatyoucanlearnthemfromthethingsthemselves——whichislikelytobethenoblerandclearerway；tolearnoftheimage，whethertheimageandthetruthofwhichtheimageistheexpressionhavebeenrightlyconceived，ortolearnofthetruthwhetherthetruthandtheimageofithavebeendulyexecuted？ CRATYLUS：Ishouldsaythatwemustlearnofthetruth。 SOCRATES：Howrealexistenceistobestudiedordiscoveredis，Isuspect，beyondyouandme。Butwemayadmitsomuch，thattheknowledgeofthingsisnottobederivedfromnames。No；theymustbestudiedandinvestigatedinthemselves。 CRATYLUS：Clearly，Socrates。 SOCRATES：Thereisanotherpoint。Ishouldnotlikeustobeimposeduponbytheappearanceofsuchamultitudeofnames，alltendinginthesamedirection。Imyselfdonotdenythatthegiversofnamesdidreallygivethemundertheideathatallthingswereinmotionandflux；whichwastheirsincerebut，Ithink，mistakenopinion。Andhavingfallenintoakindofwhirlpoolthemselves，theyarecarriedround，andwanttodragusinafterthem。Thereisamatter，masterCratylus，aboutwhichIoftendream，andshouldliketoaskyouropinion：Tellme，whetherthereisorisnotanyabsolutebeautyorgood，oranyotherabsoluteexistence？ CRATYLUS：Certainly，Socrates，Ithinkso。 SOCRATES：Thenletusseekthetruebeauty：notaskingwhetherafaceisfair，oranythingofthatsort，forallsuchthingsappeartobeinaflux； butletusaskwhetherthetruebeautyisnotalwaysbeautiful。 CRATYLUS：Certainly。 SOCRATES：Andcanwerightlyspeakofabeautywhichisalwayspassingaway，andisfirstthisandthenthat；mustnotthesamethingbebornandretireandvanishwhilethewordisinourmouths？ CRATYLUS：Undoubtedly。 SOCRATES：Thenhowcanthatbearealthingwhichisneverinthesamestate？forobviouslythingswhicharethesamecannotchangewhiletheyremainthesame；andiftheyarealwaysthesameandinthesamestate，andneverdepartfromtheiroriginalform，theycanneverchangeorbemoved。 CRATYLUS：Certainlytheycannot。 SOCRATES：Noryetcantheybeknownbyanyone；foratthemomentthattheobserverapproaches，thentheybecomeotherandofanothernature，sothatyoucannotgetanyfurtherinknowingtheirnatureorstate，foryoucannotknowthatwhichhasnostate。 CRATYLUS：True。 SOCRATES：Norcanwereasonablysay，Cratylus，thatthereisknowledgeatall，ifeverythingisinastateoftransitionandthereisnothingabiding；forknowledgetoocannotcontinuetobeknowledgeunlesscontinuingalwaystoabideandexist。Butiftheverynatureofknowledgechanges，atthetimewhenthechangeoccurstherewillbenoknowledge；andifthetransitionisalwaysgoingon，therewillalwaysbenoknowledge，and，accordingtothisview，therewillbenoonetoknowandnothingtobeknown：butifthatwhichknowsandthatwhichisknownexistsever，andthebeautifulandthegoodandeveryotherthingalsoexist，thenIdonotthinkthattheycanresembleaprocessorflux，aswewerejustnowsupposing。Whetherthereisthiseternalnatureinthings，orwhetherthetruthiswhatHeracleitusandhisfollowersandmanyotherssay，isaquestionhardtodetermine；andnomanofsensewillliketoputhimselfortheeducationofhismindinthepowerofnames：neitherwillhesofartrustnamesorthegiversofnamesastobeconfidentinanyknowledgewhichcondemnshimselfandotherexistencestoanunhealthystateofunreality；hewillnotbelievethatallthingsleaklikeapot，orimaginethattheworldisamanwhohasarunningatthenose。Thismaybetrue，Cratylus，butisalsoverylikelytobeuntrue；andthereforeIwouldnothaveyoubetooeasilypersuadedofit。Reflectwellandlikeaman，anddonoteasilyacceptsuchadoctrine；foryouareyoungandofanagetolearn。Andwhenyouhavefoundthetruth，comeandtellme。 CRATYLUS：Iwilldoasyousay，thoughIcanassureyou，Socrates，thatI havebeenconsideringthematteralready，andtheresultofagreatdealoftroubleandconsiderationisthatIinclinetoHeracleitus。 SOCRATES：Then，anotherday，myfriend，whenyoucomeback，youshallgivemealesson；butatpresent，gointothecountry，asyouareintending，andHermogenesshallsetyouonyourway。 CRATYLUS：Verygood，Socrates；Ihope，however，thatyouwillcontinuetothinkaboutthesethingsyourself。