Theclergyveryearlyendeavouredtoputanendtothearbitrarymannerinwhichparentsdisposedoftheirchildren’sfuture，buttheforceofcustomandthefeelingthatsupporteditweresostrongthattheonlymeasurewhichtheecclesiasticalstatuteofJaroslav（XIthcentury）introducedfortheprotectionofthefreedomofmarriageablechildrenwastheonebywhichafinewhichwenttothebishopwasinflictedontheparentsofadaughterwho，afteramarriagecontractedagainstherwill，hadcommittedsuicide。
Thecountrypeoplestillbelievethatamarriagewithouttheparent’sapprovalwillcalldownthewrathofHeavenontheheadsoftheyoungcouple。Thismoralsanction，therightofparentstodecidethefutureoftheirchildren，hasreceivedfromthecustomarylawofRussiathesupportofapenaltyincaseofdisobedience；thesonanddaughterwhoconcludeamarriagewithoutconsultingtheirparents，loseallrightstoinheritanceanddowry。
AccordingtomodernRussianlaw，marriageisareligiousact；
itcannotbeperformedwithoutthehelpoftheChurch，andisregardedasasacrament。Butsuchisbynomeansthelightinwhichthecountrypeoplelookonit，norwasittheviewoftheoldRussianlaw。FormanycenturiestheRussianclergyhadtofightagainsttheinveteratecustomofourlowerclassestocontractunionswithoutthesanctionoftheChurch。Theyoungcouplesavedtheexpenseofareligiousceremonyandthoughttheirunionlegallyestablishedassoonastheywerepubliclyjoinedtoeachotherinthepresenceofthecommunity，whichwasinvitedontheoccasiontoasortoffestivalcalledthevesselic。NolaterthantheendofthesixteenthcenturyanassemblyofDivinesconvenedbyIvantheCruelenteredastrongprotestagainstthecustomwhicheverywhereprevailedofomittingthereligiousconsecrationofthemarriagetie，andstrongmeasureswereinconsequencetakenagainstthosewhodidnotcomplywiththerequirementsoftheclergy。All，however，failed，andmarriageremainedintheeyesofthecommonpeoplenothingmorethanasortofcivilcontract，enteredintointhepresenceofthecommunityasasignofitsrecognitionandsanction。
Thatsuchgenerallywas，andstillis，theprevailingopinionoftheRussianpeasantmaybeseenfromthefollowingfacts。
AmongtheCossacksoftheDon，notmorethanacenturyago，people，asageneralrule，werejoinedinmarriageinthefollowingway：Theyoungcouple，afterpreviousagreement，wenttothepopularassemblyofthevillage，orstanitza，thisassemblybeingknownbythenameofMajdan，anddeclaredthattheyhadmadeuptheirmindstobecomehusbandandwife。\"Bemywife，\"saidthebridegroomtothebride。\"Bemyhusband，\"sheanswered。\"Sobeit，\"chantedtheassembly。\"Wewishyougoodluckandhappiness。\"（1*）
OntheDontheabsenceofareligiousceremonymay，toacertainextent，beexplainedbythescarcityofpriests；butsuchisbynomeansthecaseinthoseprovinceswhichwereannexedtoMuscovyinthemiddleoftheseventeenthcentury，afteragesofpoliticaldependenceonPoland。IrefertotheGovernmentsofKiev，Tchernigov，andPoltava，whichconstitutewhatinourdaysisknownunderthenameofLittleRussia。Itis，therefore，veryinterestingtofindthatinthoseprovincesthereligiousconsecrationofmarriageisstillconsideredbythepeasantsasasuperfluousceremony。Matrimoniallifebeginshereafterthenuptialfestival，the\"vesselic，\"andweeksmaypassbeforethecouplefinditnecessarytobemarriedatchurch。FactsofthesamedescriptionhavebeennoticedbyMadameEfimenkointheextremenorthofRussia，intheGovernmentofArchangel，occupiedbycolonistsfromGreatRussia。
ThecustomarylawofRussia，liketheoldGermanjurisprudence，establishedadifferencebetweenbetrothalandmarriage。Bothareconsideredtobelegalacts，andbothoughtthereforetohavedistinctlegaleffects。Betrothalislegallyconcludedassoonasthetwofamilieshavecometoanagreement，first，astotheamountofthemarriageexpenseseachpartyistobear，andsecondly，astothetimefixedforthewedding。Theexpensesareofdifferentkinds：theycomprise，first，the\"kladka\"ofthebridegroom，asortofpretiumemptionispaidtothebride’sfather，andthedowrywhichthebridereceivesfromherfamily。Thencomethepresentstobemadebyeachpartytotheparentsofthebrideandthoseofthebridegroom，andtheamountofexpensewhichthebridegroomhastoincurontheoccasionofthenuptialfeast。Alltheseareregularlydiscussedandsettledbyasortofverbalagreement，knownamongthepeasantrybythenameof\"riad。\"InancientRussiawhenagreementsofthiskindwereenteredintoevenbythehigherclasses，the\"riad\"wasalwaysputdownintheformofawrittencontract，andthisisstilloccasionallydoneinthenorthernGovernmentsofRussia，especiallyinthatofArchangel。Betrothalisconsideredtobelegallyconcludedatthemomentwhenthetwoparties，thatofthebridegroomandthatofthebride，haveshakenhands。Itisnotwithoutreasonthatiinsistonthefactthatitisthisindefiniteexpressionofthetwopartieswhichconcludestheactofbetrothal。Iwanttoimpressonyourmindsthatthepresenceofthebridegroom’sfatherisnotconsiderednecessary。Anoutsider，called\"Svat，\"maybeauthorisedbythefathertospeakandactforhiminacontractofthissort。
Assoonastheceremonyofshakinghandsisoverneitherofthecontractingpartiescanbreaktheengagementwithoutincurringtheobligationofpecuniarycompensationforthewronghedoestotheotherpartybyhisbreachofcontract。Thiscompensationisoftwodifferentkinds：theoneseemstohaveratheramoral，theotherapurelymonetaryormaterialorigin。
Ifthebride’spartybreaksthecontract，thebridegroomandhisfamilyconsiderthemselvesinjuredintheirhonour。If，however，thebreachofpromisehasbeenmadebythebridegroom，thecaseismoreserious。Thenitisnotonlythehonourofthebridethatsuffers，butalsothematerialinterestsofthefamily，sinceabriderejectedbythemanwhomshewasonthepointofmarrying，willgenerallyexperiencegreatdifficultyinfindinganothersuitor。Suchbeingthecase，thecustomarycourtofthevillageusuallyaccordstothepartyaggrievedtherighttodemandapecuniarycompensation\"forthelossofhonourthebrideissupposedtohavesustained\"（\"sabeschestic，\"sayourpeasants）。
Incasesecurityhasbeenreceivedforabridegroom’sperformanceofhispromisebyapledgeorbythepartialpaymentofthemoneywhichheowestothebride’sfather，thequestionofcompensationiseasilysettled，asthefamilyofthebrideretainforherownusethemoneyalreadyreceived；butifnopaymenthasbeenmade，thecourtmustdecidetheamounttobepaid。Itveryseldomhappensthatthesumdemandedexceedsthirtyroubles，atleast，intheprovincesofGreatRussia。NoextenuatingcircumstancesareadmittedonthisoccasionbytheCourt。Afatherleavingoncedeclaredthathewasdrunkwhenhegavehisconsenttotheproposedmarriageofhisson，receivednootheranswerbutthis：
\"Youmaybedrunk，butyoumustbeclever\"（budpyandaumen）。
Thebreachofcontractmayhavetwodifferentresults：one，thatwhichIhavejustmentioned，acompensationinmoneyforthelossofhonour；astotheother，Ihavealreadystatedthatthecontractofbetrothalcontainscertainengagementsastotheamountofthepretiumemptionis，ofthedowryandofthedifferentexpensestobeincurredbyeachpartyontheoccasionofthemarriage。Ifcertainoftheseengagementshavebeenpartlyfulfilledbeforethebreachofpromise，thewrongedpartyhastherighttodemandtherestitutionofthemoneywhichhadbeenspent；thebridegroomreceivesbackthepresentswhichhehasmadetohisbride，andthebridethosegiventothebridegroom。
TheCourtsuniformlyrecognisethenecessityforsuchmutualrestitution，theonlyexceptionbeingwhenthemoneyalreadypaidservestoconstitutetheamountofcompensationtoeitherpartyforthewronginflictedbythelossofhonour。
Thecontractofmarriagewhichfollowsthatofbetrothal，cannotatthepresenttimebedissolved；butweshouldbemistakenifweinferredfromthisfactthatthisindissolubilityofmarriagehasalwaysbeenrecognisedbythecommonlawofRussia。Thoughthepeasantsarenowknowntousethefollowingaphorisms：\"Marriageisknownbutnotunmarriage；\"\"Abadpopemaymarryyou，butevenagoodonecannotunmarryyou，\"thecasewasquitedifferentinthepast。NotlongeragothantheendoftheeighteenthcenturytheCossacksoftheDonpracticeddivorce。
Ahusbandandwifewhodidnotwishtolivetogetheranylonger，appearedbeforethepopularassemblyandmadethefollowingdeclaration。\"Thiswomanisnolongermywife；\"\"thismanisnolongermyhusband。\"\"Beitso，\"wastheansweroftheassembly，andthemarriagetieceasedtoexist。DuringthesixteenthcenturyhusbandsinGreatRussiawerestillaccustomedtogranttheirwivesfulllibertytocontractanewengagement，or，atleast，toliveapartfromtheirlegallords。AnarchbishopofNovgorod，Theodosius，bitterlycomplainedofthispractice。UptothemiddleoftheeighteenthcenturytheRussianclergydissolvedthemarriagebondveryoftenfornootherreasonthanthatofincompatibilityoftemper，thisincompatibilityappearinginthedissolutelifeofeitherhusbandorwife。
Thememoryofthosedaysisstillpreservedamongthecountryfolk，andwecanexplaintheparttakenbythecustomaryCourts，indirectcontradictiontothelaw，onlybytheinfluenceonthemoftradition。Theytakepartinthemakingofcertaincontractsinwhichhusbandsandwiveswhonolongerwishtoliveunderthesameroof，waivequestionsofinterest，andagreetointerferenomorewitheachother’sexistence。
ThepartwhichthecommunityiscalledontoplayinthecontractanddissolutionofmarriageisstrikinglymanifestedincertainpeculiarceremoniesstillinuseataLittleRussianwedding。Thetokensofthedamsel’svirginityareexhibitedinmuchthesamewayastheywereexhibiteduntotheeldersofaJewishcity，asisdescribedinthetwenty-secondchapterofDeuteronomy。Thewholecompanythenbegintoshoutloudly，congratulatingthemotherofthebride，andeulogisingthemaiden’svirtue。Incasethenewlymarriedwifeisnolongeravirgin，andherhusbandmakesnostatementastohispreviouscohabitationwithher，insteadofpraisesandcheers，themostviolentabuseispouredontheparentsofthebride，andthemostshamefulsongsaresung。Theyoftengoontoinsultingacts，suchasthefollowing：spiritsareofferedinderisiontothebride’smotherinaglasswithaholeinthebottom；theoutsidewallsofthehouseareblackenedwithtar；aholeismadeinthestoveinordertoshowthestainwhichthehearthhassuffered。Sometimes，also，oneoftheguestsclimbsuptothetopofthehouseandbeginstothrowwaterdownonallsides——asymboloftheliberalitywithwhichthenewwifehasdistributedherfavourstoallthosewhoaskedforthem。Veryfrequently，also，theparentsofthebrideareinsultedbyhavingyokesmadeofstraw，previouslybesmearedwithtaranddirt，placedbyforceontheirnecks。
ThereciprocalrightsanddutiesofhusbandandwifeaccordingtoRussiancustomarylaw，andthepositionofchildrenasregardstheirparents，arethenexttopicsIintendtodiscussinthepresentlecture。
Thehusbandisacknowledgedtobethemasterofthewomanhehasmarried。\"Thewifeisinthepowerofherhusband，\"sorunsthecommonsaying，andthefactofhercompletesubjectiontohiswillisillustratedbycertainsymbolicalactsperformedatthetimeofthewedding。Thebridegroom，whileheisleadinghisbridetoherfuturehome，givesherfromtimetotimelightblowsfromawhip，sayingateachstroke：\"Forgetthemannersofthineownfamily，andlearnthoseofmine。\"Assoonastheyhaveenteredtheirbedroom，thehusbandsaystohiswife，\"Takeoffmyboots。\"Thewifeimmediatelyobeysherhusband’sorders，and，takingthemoff，findsinoneofthemawhip，symbolofhisauthorityoverherperson。Thisauthorityimpliestherightofthehusbandtocontrolthebehaviourofhiswife，andtocorrecthereverytimehethinksfit，notonlybywords，butalsobyblows。TheopinionwhichaRussianwriterofthesixteenthcentury，thepopeorpriestSilvester（theauthorofTheDomostroy），expressedastotheproprietyofpersonalchastisement，andevenastoitsbeneficialeffectsonthehealth，isstillsharedbythecountrypeople。Inmorethanonepopularsongthewifeisrepresentedasbitterlycomplainingoftheindifferenceofahusbandwhoneveronanyoccasiongivesheragoodbeating。\"IthrashthoseIlovebest，\"saysawell-knownRussianproverb。ThecustomaryCourtseemstoadmittheuseofsuchdisciplinaryproceedingsbynotinterferinginthepersonalrelationsofhusbandandwife。\"Neverjudgethequarrelofhusbandandwife，\"isacommonsaying，scrupulouslyobservedbythevillagetribunals，whichrefusetohearanycomplaintonthepartoftheaggrievedwoman，atleastsolongasthepunishmenthasnotbeenofsuchanatureastoendangerlifeorlimb。Wherethatisthecase，theoffendermaybecondemnedtoimprisonment，andtheoutragedvictimallowedtoretireforatimetothehomeofherparents。Thecustomarylawhas，however，takeneffectualmeasuresfortheprotectionofthewife’sfortune。Thathusbandandwifeshouldeachhaveentirelydistinctproperty，withsolecontroloverit，isstilltheleadingprincipleatleastinGreatRussia。Intheprovinceswhich，likethoseofLittleRussia，havebeenforcenturiessubjecttothestatuteofLithuaniaandthemunicipallawofMagdeburg，thesystemofapartialcommunityofgoodshasprevailed。AccordingtothecustomarylawofKiev，Poltava，andChernigov，awidowhasarighttothethirdpartofthefortuneleftbyherhusband。informertimesthisthirdpartwasasortofpledgeforthesecurityofthedowryofthewife。
Afewwordswillsufficetogiveageneralideaofthedependenceinwhichthechildrenareplacedasregardstheirparents，andmoreespeciallytheirfather。ThepatriarchalcharacteroftheRussianfamilyplainlyappearsinthefactthatnoamountofbadtreatmentonthepartoftheparentsjustifiesanappealtothevillagetribunal，unlessitinvolvesdangertolifeorlimb。Insuchcases，thenatureofwhichmakesitdifficulttoestablishthefactsbeforeaCourtofLaw，thefurthermaintenanceofthechildisgenerallycommittedtosomenearrelative。
Thecompletedependenceofthechildrenupontheirparentsinrespecttofortuneisprovedbythefactthatneithersonnordaughtercanclaimanyportionofthefamilyestate。Thefathercan，ashepleases，giveorrefuseadowrytohisdaughter。
Shouldshemarryagainsthiswishnodowryisgiven，andsheenterspennilessintoherhusband’sfamily。Itequallydependsuponthefather’spleasurewhetherheshalltransferaportionofhispropertytoagrown-upson，ormaintainitintactinspiteofhisson’smanifestwishes。Anactofinsubordinationonthepartoftheson，asforinstance，hismarryingwithoutpermission，maybecometheoccasionforhiscompletedisinheritancebythefather，atleastsofarasthefather’sfortuneisconcerned。I
makethisexception，inasmuchas，besideshisshareinthefather’sfortune，thesonmaybeenabledtoinheritfromhismother’sestate，ormaypossessproperty’thegiftofsomerelativeOrfriend。Suchpropertymustbescrupulouslyguardedbythefatherwhoserightsoveritareonlythoseofthenaturalguardianofhisson’sfortune。
HithertowehavespokenoftheRussianfamilyasofakindofnaturalsociety，createdbymarriageandcontinuedbythebirthofchildren；butsidebysidewiththisformoffamilyorganisation，differingonlyindetailfromthatofWesternEurope，thereexistsinRussiaapeculiarmodeoffamilycommunism。Invariouspartsofthecountrynumerouspersons，sometimesamountingtofiftyandrarelytolessthanten，aretobefoundunitedinacommonhousehold，livingunderthesameroofandtakingtheirmealsatthesametable。AfamilyconstitutedafterthisfashionisknowntoEnglishscholarsunderthenameof\"TheJointFamily\"or\"HouseCommunity。\"SirHenryMainehasmadethenotionofitgenerallyfamiliarthroughhismarvellousinvestigationsintheearlylawofIrelandandthemoderncustomsofNorthernIndia。Hehasalsocorrectlysettledthequestionofitsoriginbyappealingtonaturalincreaseandnon-divisionastherealsourcesofitsgrowth。Hehasevenmadeanattempttoshowthatitwasnotlimitedtodistinctpeoplesorraces，butthat，notwithstandingtheimmensedistancewhichseparatestheEasternorHindoobranchoftheAryanracefromtheEuropeanbranches，notwithstanding，also，thedifferenceinthehistoricaldevelopmentwhichmaybetracedbetweenitsCelticandSlavonicramifications，jointhouseholdsareaslikelytobemetwithinthedefilesoftheHimalayasasintheplainsofoldErinorofmodernServia。TakingadvantageoftherecentinvestigationsmadebyProfessorBogisicinthecustomarylawoftheSouthernSlavs，SirHenryMainehaspresentedalivelypictureoftheinteriororganisationofthefamousServian\"Zadrouga，\"which，asheshows，hasmorethanonefeatureincommonwiththeHouseCommunityoftheRajpoots。Thebarrieroflanguage，ofwhichhesooftencomplains，preventedthismasterinthefieldofcomparativejurisprudencefromcompletinghisstudiesofthepatriarchalsystemofHouseCommunitiesbyinvestigatingtheUndividedHouseholdofGreatRussia。ThisUndividedHouseholdhasbeenrecentlythesubjectofnumerousandseriousinquiriesonthepartofRussianethnographers；andtheresultsoftheirinvestigationsIdesirenowtolaybeforeyou。
FirstofallletmetellyouthattheundividedhouseholdoftheEasternSlavsisaveryancientinstitution。Intheso-calledChronicleofNestor，mentionismadeofthe\"gens\"organisationofthePolians，aSlavonictribe，dwellingasIhavealreadysaid，onthebanksoftheDnieper。ThePoliansarestatedtolive（Itranslateliterally）\"eachrulinghisownkindredorgens（rodsvoi）andoccupyingdistinctlocalities。\"ThisratherobscuretextauthorisesthesuppositionthatthePoliansweredividedintoindependenthouse-communities，eachofwhichpossesseditsownpieceofland。AnotherreferenceismadetotheseUndividedHouseholdsinoneoftheparagraphsofthePravdaofJaroslav，（2*）asortofMirrorofJusticecompiledinthemiddleoftheeleventhcentury，byorderoftheGrandDukeJaroslav，sonofthatVladimirwhointroducedChristianityintoRussia。ThefrequentoccurrenceofSouthSlavonictermsinthistheoldestRussiancode，such，forinstance，asthatof\"bratouchada\"（thesonofthebrother，thenephew）confirmsthehypothesisfirstputforth，sofarasIknow，bythewell-knownprofessorofRussianhistoryatMoscow，MrKluchevsky，thattheworkofcodificationhadbeenentrustedtosomesouthernSlav。ThisisthemorelikelyasowingtotherecentintroductionofChristianityandlearningintoRussia，therewasalackofwell-educatednatives，sothattheByzantineChurchhadfrequentlytohaverecoursetopriestsofSouthSlavonicorigin，inordertopropagatetheGospelandtheelementsoflearningamongtheireasternandnorthernbrethren。OldRussianbeingmuchmorelikethelanguageintowhichtheHolyScriptureshadbeentranslated，andtheSlavonicdialectofthetranslationbeingthatoftheSouthernSlavs，priestsofBulgarianorServianoriginwerethefittestpersonsinRussiatobeemployedinthiswork。ThetranslationofGreektexts，thetranscriptionandcompositionofSlavonicandRussianMSS。，asalsothefirstattemptsatawrittenexpositionofRussiancustomarylawwouldequallyfallintotheirhands。Theshareof。aSouthernSlavintheworkofcodificationwouldexplainthepresenceinthePravdaofJaroslavofatermwhichhasledtomuchcomment。Thewordinquestionisverv。Variousguesseshadbeenmadeastoitsmeaning，whenatlastProfessorLeontovitchhadthegoodfortunetofinditusedinanoldSouthSlavoniccustomary，thestatuteofPolitza，andthatinthesenseofUndividedHouseholdorHouseCommunity。ThesenseagreeswiththecontextofthetwoparagraphsinwhichthewordisusedinthePravda。Inoneofthemmentionismadeofacasewherethebodyofamanbelongingtothe\"following\"ofthedukehasbeenfoundwithinthelimitsofaverv；andtheothersaysthatinsuchacasethewholevervmustpayincommonafinesimilartothatwhichwasinflictedinEnglandinsuchcasesduringthereignsofWilliamtheConquerorandtheearlyPlantagenets。
A\"verv，\"payingincommonasortofpecuniarycompositionforacrimesupposedtohavebeencommittedbyoneofitsmembers；a\"verv\"possessingitsownproperlimits，andthereforeitsownterritorialpossession，exactlycorrespondstoahouse-community，inwhichseveralpersons，livingunderthesameroofandowninglandincommon，arejointlyanswerableforthecrimesandmisdemeanourscommittedwithinthelimitsoftheirpossessions。
Iffromtheeleventhandtwelfthcenturies，duringwhichthedifferentversionsofthePravdaweredrawnup，wepasstotheendofthefourteenthandthebeginningofthefifteenthcenturies，wefindthesamevillagecommunitymentioned，aswellintheNorthWesternprincipalitiesofRussia——thatofPscov，forexample，asinthoseoftheSouthWestwhichwereruledbytheStatuteofLithuania。ThenameunderwhichthemembersofthesecommunitiesareknowntotheRussianlawisthatof\"siabri。\"ThistermisemployedbothbythejudicialcharterofPscov（1397-1467）andbythebefore-mentionedStatuteofLithuania（1529）。ThiswordsiabriisalsotobefoundamongtheSouthernSlavs。ThecodeofServianlaws，publishedbyKingStefanDouschanintheyear1349，makesfrequentuseofitwhenspeakingofthepeasants。（3*）ThepeasantsofServia，havingalwayslived，andstillliving，inundividedhouseholds，thetermmeaningco-partnersintheenjoymentofanundividedproperty，wasverynaturallyappliedtothemanditisthismeaningthatthewordstillkeepsinthejudicialcharterofPscov，andalsointheStatuteofLithuania。ThelatterwasthechiefsourceofthecustomarylawofLittleRussia，andtheterm\"siabri\"andtheinstitutionitcallstomind，areoftenmentionedintheLittleRussiandocumentsofthelastthreecenturies。Arecentsurveyofthesesources，madebyProfessorLouchitzky，hasquitesettledthequestionoftheexistenceofHouseCommunitieseveninthoseprovincesofLittleRussiawhereinourtimedivisionofpropertymostprevails。HereaselsewhereindividualismseemstohavebeenprecededbyasortoffamilycommunismlikethatofIndia，irelandandtheSouthSlavonianprincipalities。
ThetermsiabriisnottheonlyoneusedbyOldRussianwriterstodesignatethemembersofsuchahousehold。Theyareoftenspokenofinthefinancialsurveysofthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturiesunderthecharacteristicnameofhearth，pechische。Theso-calledpiszoviiaknigi，akindofsurveyverylikethepoll-taxrollsstillpreservedintheRecordOffice，speakofthehearthastheunitoftaxation。ThepechischeofthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiescorrespondstothefeuofBurgundyandisevenknownbythatnameinsomeofthenorthernprovincesofRussia。Theprivatecharters，whicharestillpreservedbymorethanonefamilyintheGovernmentofArchangel，someofwhichweredrawnupinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies，whenspeakingofthehousecommunityalwaysmakeuseofthetermognische，awordwhichmeansthehearthfire，thusshowingthatwhatconstitutedthetiebetweenmembersofthesamehouseholdwastheircookingfoodatthesamehearth。
Thusfarwehaveshownthehighantiquityoftheinstitutionwhichweareengagedinexamining。Letusnowproceedtothestudyofitscharacteristicfeatures。
AlloverRussia，butparticularlywithintheboundariesoftheoldMuscoviteempire，communitiesofpersonsbelongingtothesamekindredandlivingunderthesameroofarestillinexistence。Thenumberofpersonsbelongingtothesecommunitiesvariesfromten，orevenless，tofiftyandupwards。InthegovernmentofKoursk，acommunitycomposedofaboutsixtypersonshasrecentlybeennoticedbyProfessorSamokvasov。Butsuchcasesarerare，andthenumberofpersonslivingincommondoesnot，asarule，exceedtwentyorthirty。Amongthemwefindthegrandfatherandgrandmother，thefatherandmother，sonsanddaughters，grandsonsandgranddaughters，brothersandsisters，nephewsandnieces，withsuchotherpersonsasmaybeunitedtothembytiesofmarriage，asdaughters-in-lawinrightoftheirhusbands，andsons-in-lawinrightoftheirwives。Personsincorporatedintothefamily，workingforthecommongood，andhavingsharesinthefamilyprofitsareoftenmentionedbywritersonRussianfolk-lore。Besidestheseothersmayperchancehavebecomemembers，asforinstancepersonsadoptedintoit，orthechildrenofawidowcontractinganewmarriagewithamemberofthecommunity，who，onaccountofherunwillingnesstobeseparatedfromthem，cometolivewithherundertheroofofhernewhusband。
FromthisweseehowvariousmayhavebeentheoriginofthosewhoweremembersoftheUndividedFamily。
Blood-relationship，inthepropersenseoftheword，isnotalwaysrequired，itsufficesthatthemembersbeconsideredasrelatives；adoptiontakestheplaceofactualdescent，andthefactofsharingthedailyworkveryoftengivesastrangertherightsofarelative。
Undividedhouseholdsare，asarule，governedbytheoldestmembersofthecommunity，butincaseofprolongedillnessorwantofmentalpowertheoldestmembermaybesupersededbyanother，sometimeselectedbythewholecommunity。Thenamegiventothehouse-elderisbolschack，whichmeansthegreatestinpower。Hisauthorityandfunctionsperfectlycorrespondtothosebelonging，inaServianzadruga，totheso-called\"domachin。\"
Likethedomachin，heisassistedinthedifficulttaskofgoverningthefemalepartofthehousecommunitybysomeagedwoman，knownbythenameof\"bolschoucha\"（thegreatestwoman），whoisnotalwayshiswife。
Itwouldbeagrosserrortolookuponthehouse-elderofaRussianundividedfamilyasholdingthesamepositionastheRomanpaterfamilias。Thehouse-elderhasneithertheauthoritynortheamountofindependenceenjoyedbythepaterfamiliasintheadministrationofthefamilyfortune。TheRussianhouse-elder，liketheServiandomachin，isbutprimusinterpares。Allthegrown-upmembersofthecommunityconstituteasortoffamilycouncil，whoseadvicemustberegularlyaskedinmattersofimportance。Thedomachinhasnorighttodisposeofthefamilypossessionswithouttheunanimousconsentofallthepersonsforwhomheacts。WhenIsayall，Imeanofcourseonlythegrown-upmembers，womenaswellasmen。Thewomen’sopinion，thoughoflessimportancethanthemen’s，isnottobedisregarded，themoresoonaccountoftheinfluencewhichtheyexerciseontheirhusbands。
Thefunctionsofthehouse-elderareofveryvariouskinds。
Wemustmentionfirstofallhisexclusiverighttorepresentthecommunitybeforetheexecutiveandjudicialauthoritiesofthevillageanddistrict（seloivolost）。Itishewhoregularlyappearsinthecourts，eithertoanswerthecomplaintsagainstthecommunity，ortoinsistontherecognitionofrightswhichhavebeenviolated。ItistohimalsothattheGovernmentofficialsaddresstheirdemandforthespeedypaymentofthetaxes。Itishisdutytoattendtotheexecutionofthelawconcerningmilitaryservice，andtothecarryingoutofthedifferentordersissuedbythelocalandprovincialauthorities。
Astothedutieswhichthedomachinhastoperforminconnectionwiththeinterioradministrationofthehousehold，theyareoftwodifferentkinds：theyconcerneitherthepersonswhocomposethehousecommunity，ortheundividedpropertyownedbythem。Alldisputesarisingbetweenco-partnersaresettledbythehouse-elder，whoisregularlyassistedinsuchcasesbythefamilycouncil。Hisinterferenceintherelationsbetweenhusbandandwife，betweenparentsandchildren，sometimesexertsahighlybeneficialinfluence，insofarasitpreventscasesofgrossabuseintheexerciseofmaritalandpaternalpower；butitoftenhappensontheotherhandthatdisputesbetweenmarriedcouplesareembitteredbythepartialityofthehouse-elderforoneorotherparty。Onmorethanoneoccasionhusbandshavebeenknowntoinflictseverepunishmentontheirwivesbecausetheywereorderedtodosobytheheadofthecommunity；instances，too，areveryfrequentinwhichthewife，encouragedbythesupportofthehouse-elder，disregardstherightsofherhusband，andlivesinalmostopenadulterywiththepersonwhosechiefdutyoughttoconsistinthemaintenanceofahighmoralstandardamongstthepersonsoverwhomheexercisesauthority。
Thehouse-elderhasalso，ifnotacastingvote，atleastaconsultativevoiceinsuchmattersasthechoiceofawife，orthegivingofadaughterinmarriage。Astheamountofthedowryisalwaysfixedbythefamilycouncil，presidedoverbyitschief，hisdecisionveryoftensettlesthequestionastotheacceptanceorrefusaloftheofferofmarriage。Itisalsothedutyofthehouse-eldertofindoccupationfortheunemployedmembersofthehousehold。Ifthecommunityistoolargetoallowofallitsmembersbeingemployedinagriculturallabour，thefamilyfindsitadvantageoustopermitacertainnumberofitsmemberstoseektheirfortunesabroad，eitherinprivateserviceorassmalltradersorpedlars，travellingaboutthecountrywithpacksontheirbacks。Suchpettyhawkers，vervnumerousinourEasternprovinces，areknowninRussiaunderthevariousnamesof\"ofeni，\"\"chodebocschiki，\"\"korobhniki，\"and\"prosoli。\"Theyrenderarealservicetothecountrypopulation，which，atleastinplacesfardistantfromrailwaysandmarkets，wouldwithoutthemhavenomeansofprocuringthemostsimplenecessariesoflife。
Youngorphansfindinthepersonofthehouse-eldertheirlegalguardian；theirmoralandmentaleducationdependssolelyonhim；itisbewhosendsthemtoschool，findsemploymentfortheminthefields，orapprenticesthemtothedifferentvillageartisanstolearnatradebywhichtoearnafuturelivelihood。
Astheadministrationofthefamilyfortune，asIhavealreadysaid，fallsonthehouse-elder，hemakesallarrangementsthatareneedfultosecurethateverykindofagriculturallabourshallbeproperlydone，assigningtoeachhisdailyshareintheploughing，harrowing，andsowingofthefields，thrashingofthecorn，andsuchlikeoccupations。Ifthenumberofhandsofwhichthefamilycandisposeisnotsufficienttoanswerallitsrequirements，hehiresotherstohelpthem。Whenthetimecomesfortheexchangeofharvestproduceforsucharticlesasthepeasantsmayneed，itisagainthebusinessofthehouse-eldertosigncontractsofsaleorexchange。Thoseunderhischargehaveinsuchcasestherighttocontrolactionsandtodemandafullaccountofallthemoneysreceivedorpaidbyhim。Thiscontrolisparticularlyusefulonthosesomewhatrareoccasionswhen，inconsequenceofaseriesofbadharvests，thefamilyisobligedtodisposeofapartofitsestate。Onsuchoccasionsthewholefamilyhasavoiceintheselectionofthepurchases。Theirunanimousconsent，plainlyexpressedintheactofsale，isnecessaryinordertorenderitlegal。
Theresourcesbywhichthefamilyprovidesforallitsrequirementsareofdifferentkinds：somearederivedfromthelandsitowns，othersfromtheprivateearningsofitsmembers。
Widelyseparatedthoughsomeofitsmembersmaybefromthefamily，thetravellingpedlar，thelabourerwhohashiredhimselfoutonsomedistantfarm，thesoldierandsailorfightinginsomeforeigncountryorsailingtosomedistantland，neverthelesstheyalllookuponitadutytoallowtheirfamilytoshareintheirearnings。OnitsparttheHouseCommunitydoesnotobjecttomaintainthewifeandchildrenofanabsentmember，ortopaytheamountofhisyearlytaxes。ThecommunisticcharacterofthegreatRussianfamilyisshownbytheeasewithwhichthehouseholdgetsitsmemberswhoaretemporarilyseparatedfromittopayovertoitthegainswhichtheymake。These，asarule，makenoclaimtokeeptheirearningsforthemselves。Thepeculiumcastrenseandquasicastrense，formerlyknowntotheancientRomans，appearstilltoexistamongthemembersoftheRussianhousecommunitiesofthepresentday。ifamovementinfavouroftheestablishmentofprivatepropertycanbedetecteditisonlyintheprivateearningsmadebythewomenandgirlsintheirleisurehours。Theseearningsaccumulatedhourbyhouranddaybydayform，asarule，theprincipalpartofthefuturedowry，thefatherandmothermakingbutasmalladditiontothesumgottogetherbytheindustryandthriftofamaidenwhoformanyyearshasbeenpreparingforhermarriage。TheUndividedHouseholdofGreatRussiamayinthisrespectbecomparedtothehousecommunityofIndia，foritalsosecurestoanunmarriedwomantherightofprovidingapeculiumapart，asortofindependentfortune，theso-called\"stridhana，\"bytheaccumulationofthesmallsavingssheregularlymakesbyneedlework。
NowthatIhavetraced，thoughonlyinitsgeneraloutlines，thatpeculiarinstitutionknowninRussiaundertherathervaguetermof\"TheGreatFamily，\"letmecallyourattentiontotheadvantagesanddisadvantageswhichthisinstitutionpresents。Itsgreatmeritcertainlyconsistsinthefactthatitdevelopstoafarlargerextentthanthesmallfamiliesofourdaysthefeelingofmutualdependenceandjointrelationshipwithoutwhichnosystemofsocialreformcanhaveanychanceofsuccess。
Possessingastheydonootherbutcommonpropertyandhavinganequalshareinallthematerialenjoymentsoffortune，themembersofthesecommunisticbodiesescapefromthedishearteninginfluenceofeconomiccompetition。
Theconditionsofthisexistencenecessarilydevelopinthemalltheconsciousnessofmutualresponsibility，andtheconvictionthatwithoutrelianceononeanothertheycannotovercomethedangersanddifficultiesoflife。Itwouldbeastudyofhighpsychologicalinteresttoanalysethecharacterofapeoplewhichhadgrownupundersuchconditions，andtoshowhowfartheinbornselfishinstinctsofmanhavebeenmoderatedbythesofteninginfluenceofastateofsocietywhich，toacertainextent，doesawaywiththenecessityforanuninterruptedstruggleforlife。TheRussiannovelists，consciousofwhatmightproperlybeexpectedofthem，havemorethanoncetriedtogiveapictureoftheRussian\"moujik\"whoissounliketheFrench\"paysan，\"thatpettyownerofasmallpieceoflandjealouslywatchedandguardedfromtheencroachmentsofhisneighbourandfromthoseoftheState。
Thelife-likecharactersdrawnbyourgreatauthor，Tourgenieff，inhisvivid\"SketchesofaSportsman\"are，I
believe，thebestillustrationsthathaveeverbeengivenofthethoughtsandfeelingsofourpeople-apeoplewho，thoughroughandrude，yetenjoythegreatblessingofbeingunconsciousoftheneedofsecuringtheirindividualhappinessbyaconstantstruggleandbythepursuitofegotisticends。TherelianceshownbytheRussianpeasantonthecommunity，hisconvictionthatthemirisalwaysjustandreasonable，andthattruthisnowheretobefoundbutintheunanimousopinionofthepeoplehavecertainlydevelopedestimablequalitiesandhavehelpedtomaketheRussianmoujikacommunist。Thatthisisreallythecase，andthathischaracterhasbeenmodifiedbythesystemoftheGreatFamily，isprovedbythefactthatwhereveradivisionofthecommonpropertyhadtakenplace，whereverthepeasanthasbeenreducedbyhisownwilltodependentirelyonhispersonalindustryforhissuccessinlife，hehasbecomethepushing，unscrupulousmanwhomtheAmericannovelisthasrenderedsofamiliartous。TwogreatRussianwriters，MrOuspenskyandMrSlatovraczky，bothequallyunknowntotheEnglishpublicalthoughtheirpopularityamongstmycountrymenalmostequalsthatofTourgeniefforTolstoi，haverecentlypublishedtwowidelydifferentaccountsofthesocialandpsychologicalconditionofourpeasants。MrOuspenskyhasspokenofthepeasantasacreaturewhoseethicsalmostentirelydependupontheregularperformanceofagriculturallabour。Aslongasheremainsaproprietorhismoralsaresound，butlethimoncelosethepieceoflandwhichhehasmadefruitfulbythesweatofhisbrowheissuretofallintodebaucheryandvice。MrSlatovraczkyhasdepictedhimasakindofunselfishphilosopher，whothinksthattheproductsoftheeartharethecommoninheritanceofallmen，andthatthechiefdutyofaChristianistohelphisneighbour，sometimesevenathisownexpense。
Now，whatmayseemhardlycredibleisthatbothauthorshavebeenapplaudedbythesamepublic——applauded，moreover，becausebothwereequallycorrectintheirstatements。Thekeytothemysteryistobefoundinthefactthatitisadifferentlifewhichispicturedbyeach——thefirsthavingchosenhisherofromamongthemembersofabroken-uphousecommunity；thesecondamongthosestilllivingincommon。Ourthoughtsandfeelingsbeingdirectlyinfluencedbyoursocialconditions，MrOuspensky’sheropresentstousallthefeaturesofahardworker，pursuingnootherobjectthanhisowninterestsandwelfare，whilstMrSlatovraczky’sheroappearstobe\"apersonlivingnotafterthewordofmanbutafterthewordofGod，\"
caringforhisfellow-creaturesalmostasmuchasforhimself。（4*）
ThereisexaggerationinthewayinwhichbothauthorsrepresentthemodernRussianmoujik；forthesenseofproportionwhichwassohighlyvaluedbytheancientsisnotalwayspossessedbymycountrymen；buteventakingintoaccountthispartialityforcertainsocialformsandinstitutions，Ibelievetheyhaverenderedusarealservicebypointingouttheintimatecorrespondencethatexistsbetweenthemoralcharacterofourpeasantryandtheirancientmodeoflie。
Imust，nevertheless，confessthatmorality，thatatleastwhichisconcernedwiththerelationsbetweenthesexes，hasnotmuchtogainfromtheclosepackingunderthesameroofofpersonsdifferinginsexandage。IleavetoMr。AnatoleLeroyBeaulieuthetaskofinstructingyouonthissubject：\"Chezunpeuplepauvreetchezdeshommesgrossiers，\"saysthisacuteFrenchobserver，\"toutn’estpointprofitetvertusousleregimepatriarcal。Onsaitcombiendemauxdetoutessortesderiventdanslesgrandesvillesd’occident，del’etroitessedeslogementsetdel’entassementdesindividus。LesinconyenientsnesontpasmoindresenRussie。Quanduneetroiteizba（chaumiere）reunitplusieursgenerationsetplusieursmenages，quedurantleslonguesnuitsd’unlonghiverlesperesetlesenfants，lesfreresetleursfemmescouchentpele-meleautourdulargepoele，ilenresulteunesortedepromiscuiteaussimalsainepourl’amequepourlecorps。Chezlemoujik，alorsmemequelesenfantsmarieshabitaientplusieursizbasdisposeesautourdelamemecour，l’autocratiedomestiqueetaitundangerpourl’integriteetlachastetedelafamille。Dememequeleproprietairenoblesurlesservesdesesdomaines，lechefdemaisons’arrogeaitparfoisunesortededroitduseigneursurlesfemmessoumisesasonautorite。Lechef，designedusurnomleVieux，qui，gracealaprecocitedesmarriages，avaitsouventapeinequaranteans，prelevaitsursesbellesfillesuntributquelajeunesseouladependancedesesfilsleurdefendaitdeluicontester。Iln’etaitpointraredevoirainsilefoyerdomestiquesouillieparl’autoritequiendevaitmaintenirlapurete。（5*）
Itmayalsocertainlybequestionedhowfarthelossofaspiritofpersonalenterprise，andtheremovalofastrongfeelingofself-relianceoughttobeconsideredbeneficial。I
havenodoubtthatifmodernRussiaproducesonthemindsofforeignobserversanimpressionasofalandofpaupers，thereasonofit，oratleastoneofthereasons，istobefoundintheprevalenceoftheseoldcommunisticinstitutions。Wemustnotforgetthatitistheprincipleofself-helpthathascreatedthematerialgrowthofEnglandandoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica。
ButinenteringonthesediscussionsItrenchonveryuncertainground。TherelativeadvantagesanddisadvantagesofindividualismandofcommunismhavefurnishedmatterforwarmcontroversyfromthetimeofPlatodowntothetimeofRuskinandofSpencer，andweneednotdiscussthemhere。IthinkitbettertostatethattheRussianpeasant，atleastinourtime，isnotinsensibletotheadvantagesofindividualism，asiswellshownbythefactthatbetweentwoandthreemilliondivisionsofHouseCommunitieshavebeeneffectedsincethedaywhentheliberatedserfobtainedtherighttomakethem。Ifdivisionsoffamilypropertywererarebefore1861，theyearoftheabolitionofserfdom，thereasonliesinthefactthatthemanoriallordsandtheStatewerealikeinterestedinthepreservationofthesystemofUndividedHouseholds。Thenaturalresponsibilityofthemembersforthepaymentoftaxesandfortheexecutionofthosevariouskindsofagriculturallabourwhichserfswereboundtoperformonthelandsofthemanor，wereadvantagesfartooprecioustobeeasilyabandoned。Itwas，anditstillis，fortheinterestsofthenationaltreasurythatthesedivisionsshouldnottakeplace。ItisforthisreasonthattheGovernment，concealingitsrealdesignsunderashowofgood-willtowardsanoldandvenerableinstitution，hasrecentlytakenmeasurestopreventfurtherdivisions。Itisnolongerwiththemajoritythatthedecisionistorestinquestionsofthiskind，butwiththechiefofthehousehold，apersonwhois，ofcourse，asarule，interestedinthemaintenanceofnon-division。
ThereasonswhicharebroughtforwardbythepeasantstojustifytheirbreakingupofUndividedHouseholdsaregenerallythefollowing：Non-division，theysay，causestheableandlaborioustoworkfortheidleandincapable。Itisunjusttoforceanunmarriedpersontodividehissavingswitharelativeenjoyingthepleasuresofmarriedlifeandanumerousprogeny，who，onaccountoftheiryouth，arenotyetabletoearnanythingbytheworkoftheirhands。Theyalsoaffirmthat，asthedwelling-placeistoosmalltoaccommodatealargefamily，theyareforcedtodivideinordertolivewithdecency。
Itisalsooftensaidthatdisputesamongthewomenarethedirectcauseofseparation，while，again，somepeasantsfranklyavowthattheyinsistonleavingtheircommunisticmodeoflifeinordertohavetheirownhomesandtobetheirownmasters。（6*）
Iftheobjectionsjustmentionedarenotthoseofindividualism，Idonotknowwhatindividualismis。
ItisinthemostfertileregionsofRussia——inLittleRussiaandNewRussia——thatdivisionshavebeenmostnumerous。
inthesepartssmallfamiliesarealreadythegeneralrule，astheblacksoilofthosedistrictsisrichenoughtopaythetaxesthatarelevied，andthepeasantisnotalarmedbytheprospectofbeingdeprivedoftheaidofhisrelatives。ThespiritofindependenceoftheCossacks，whichallthosewhoareacquaintedwiththemreadilyacknowledge，explainstoagreatextentthereasonwhytheundividedhouseholdisdyingoutinthesouthernandsouth-westernpartsofRussia。
Thenorthernprovinceswillcertainlysoonerorlaterfollowthesamepath，andthepatriarchalhousecommunitywilldisappearinRussia，justasithasdisappearedinFrance，Italy，andSpain，andasitisdisappearinginourdaysinServiaandCroatia。ForwemustnotthinkthatthissystemwasaltogetherunknowntothepeopleofWesternEurope。NotonlyinIreland，whereitspreviousexistencehadbeenrecognisedbySirHenryMaine，butalsoamongtheGermanandLatinraces，theundividedhouseholdwas，afewcenturiesago，astilllivinginstitution。
GuyCoquille，alegalwriterofthesixteenthcentury，speaksofthemintheprovinceofNivernais，andtheyhaverecentlybeendiscoveredintheoldchartersofBerry。The\"consorteria\"ofmedievalTuscany，the\"genealogie\"oftheoldAlemanniclaw，andthestillexisting\"Companias\"ofSpanishGalicia，arebutdifferentnamestodesignatetheUndividedhousehold。Ifthesehavedisappeared，orarelikelytodisappear，inthenearfuture，itisbecausetheyhavebeenforcedtoyieldtotherequirementsofindividualism。IseenoreasonwhythesamethingshouldnothappeninRussia。
NOTES：
1。Charousin，\"TheCossackCommunitiesoftheDon\"（Moscow，1883），p。74。
2。\"ThePravdaofJaroslav\"，publishedbyKalachev，ss。88，89。
3。Thiswordappears，forinstance，inthefollowingsentences；
\"Nopoliticalassemblyofthe’siabri’oughttoexist。\"\"Ifanyoneconvenesit，lethimlosehisears。\"
4。ThetwonovelstowhichIalludeare，\"ThePoweroftheLand，\"
byOuspensky，and\"TheSolidBase\"（Oustoi），bySlatovraczky。
BothnovelswerepublishedinMoscow。
5。\"L’EmpiredesTzarsetlesRusses，\"p。488。
6。ComparewhatM。DobrotvorskysaysaboutthefamilyintheGovernmentofVladmir（JuridicalJournal，Moscow，1889，vol。ii。
p。283）。
ModernCustomandAncientLawsofRussiabyMaximeKovalevsky1891
LectureIII
ThePastandPresentoftheRussianVillageCommunityFewquestionsofhistoryaredebatedinourdaysasthatoftheoriginofvillagecommunities。French，English，andGermanscholars，tosaynothingofRussiansandAmericans，havepublishedwholevolumesinordertoproveeithertheexistenceornon-existenceofvillagecommunitiesinthatperiodofevolutionwhichisgenerallyknownaspatriarchal。
TheacuteGermanobserver，BaronHaxthausen，whowasthefirsttodescribetoEuropeanreadersthesocialandeconomiccharacteroftheRussianmir，wasprobablyquiteunconsciousoftheliterarymovementtowhichhewastogiverisebyhistwoorthreesentencesabouttheantiquityoftheRussianagrariancommunity，anditslikenesstothesocialandeconomicinstitutionsoftheSouthernandWesternSlavs。AfewyearsafterthepublicationofBaronHaxthausen’swork，aMoscoviteprofessor，MrChicherin，intwoarticleswhichatonceproducedagreatsensation，stronglyprotestedagainsttheopinionthatRussianvillagecommunitieswerethedirectdescendantsofthoseundividedhouseholdswhichsocommonlyformpartofthehistoricalpastofmostAryannations。TheSlavophilsandtheirleaderChomiakovmaintainedthattheywerethespontaneousgrowthofRussia。Chicherinbelievedtheyhadatwofoldorigin——thattheywerepartlythecreationofaGovernmentanxioustosecureaneasymethodofcollectingoneofthetaxeswhichwasveryliketheoldFrenchcapitationtax，andpartlyduetothelandedaristocracy，whichcouldfindnobettermeansthananequalandperiodicalredistributionoftheland，forattachingtothesoilthoseclassesofthepeoplewhowerereducedtotheconditionofserfdom。ThisextraordinaryassertionimmediatelymetwithasystematicdenialonthepartofMrBeliaiev，thewell-knownProfessorofLegalHistory，whowasoneofthecolleaguesofMrChicherin，andwhoseextensiveresearchesinthelegalhistoryofRussiagavehisopiniongreatweight。Thisdidnot，however，preventM。FusteldeCoulangesfromreproducingthetheoryjustasifithadnotalreadybeenrefuted。Buttheinventorsoftheories，ofwhomFusteldeCoulangeswascertainlyoneofthegreatest，toooftenfollowthemethoddescribedinthewell-knownFrenchsaying：\"Jeprendsmonbienoujeletrouve。\"SeeingthatadenialoftheantiquityoftheRussianvillagecommunitiessupportedhistheoryofthegeneralprevalenceofprivatepropertyevenintheearliesttimes，hethoughthimselfatlibertytodisregardalllaterinvestigations，andtoendorseanopinionwhichhadalreadybeenrefuted。
ThestudyoftheoriginandgrowthofRussianvillagecommunitieshasneverbeendiscontinuedinmycountrywincethetimewhentheworkofHaxthausenfirstdrewtheattentionofoureconomistsandhistorianstothispeculiarinstitution。Acrowdofyoungstudentshaverenderedfamiliar，eventothegeneralpublic，thenotionthattheywerethespontaneousresultofoursocialdevelopment；thattheGovernment，byinterferingintheirinternalconstitution，hasonlysucceededinobscuringtheirnationalcharacter；thatmutualresponsibilityinmattersoftaxationwasforeigntotheiroriginalorganisation；andthatthereisamplefoundationforthestatementthattheirmembers，frombeing，astheywereatfirst，freepossessorsofthesoil，becametheserfsoftheCzar，thenobles，ortheclergy。
TheextraordinaryincreaseofhistoricalresearchinRussia，andespeciallyofinvestigationsintothesocialandeconomicaldevelopmentofthecountry，whichtookplaceduringthereignofAlexanderII，certainlycontributedlargelytoinduceGermanscholars，withtheillustriousMaurerattheirhead，toreviewthecurrentopinionsconcerningthesocialconditionoftheGermansintheMiddleAges。ItledMaurertoelaboratehismagnificenttheoryoftheMark，Manor，andVillageConstitution（Mark，HofundDorfVerfassung）。
SirHenryMainemadethesystemofvillagecommunitiesfamiliartoEnglishstudents，andhad，moreover，thegreatmeritofshowingthat，farfrombeingapeculiarfeatureofthesocialorganisationoftheGermansandSlavs，theyweretobefoundamongstthemajorityofAryannations，intheplainsofthePunjabandtheinterioroftheNorth-WestProvincesofindia，andamongthegreenpasturesofErin。ThealmostuniversaladmirationwhichhisessayonVillageCommunitiesintheEastandWesthaselicited，restsonnoothergroundthanthatofitshavingfirstbroughttolightthetruthwhichisnowallbutestablished，thatvillagecommunitiesrepresentadistinctperiodinthesocialdevelopmentofmankind，aperiodwhichoughttobeplacedbetweenthepatriarchalandthefeudalperiods，andthat，therefore，allendeavourstoexplaintheirexistenceamongthisorthatpeoplebythepeculiaritiesofnationalcharacteroughttobehenceforthdeclareduselessandworthless。
Thisidea，confirmed，asitis，byageneralsurveyofthesurvivalsleftbythesystemofvillagecommunitiesamongtheCeltic，German，andLatinnations，asurveywithwhichM。deLaveleyehasinseparablyconnectedhisname，hasliterallyrevolutionisedthehistoricalresearchesofmorethanonecountryofEurope，andespeciallythoseofmyown。TheimpressionproducedbythetwowritersjustmentionedisstillsostrongthatRussianscholars，insteadofsubscribingtotherecentingenioushypothesisofMrSeebohmastotheservileoriginofvillagecommunitiesinEngland，havethemselvessettoworktoexaminetherichmaterialswhichtheBodleianLibraryandtheRecordOfficepresentastothehistoryofland-ownershipinEngland。InsayingthisIhaveparticularlyinviewthedeepandaccuratestudiesofmyformercolleagueProfessorVinogradovontheagrarianconstitutionofmedievalEngland，ofwhichafewyearsagoIgaveashortaccountintheLawQuarterlyReview。
