UptothispointwehavetriedtoshowthatduringtheMiddleAgesRussiawasaloosefederationofprincipalities，inwhichthepeoplewerewonttoexercise，onalargerorsmallerscale，legislative，executive，judicial，andevenpoliticalpower。BypoliticalpowerImeantherightofelectinganddismissingtheruler，ofdeclaringwarandmakingpeace。Thepeopleexercisedtheirrightsidebysidewiththeprince，the\"knias，\"whograduallyincreasedhisownpowertotheprejudiceofthepowerofthefolkmoteorveche。AttheendofthefifteenthcenturyNovgorodandPscovalonemaintainedtheprimitiverelationsbetweentheprinceandthepopularassembly，fortheystillkeptthepowerofelectinganddismissingthechiefmagistrateofthestate，aswellasthehighestofficials，theposadnik，andthe\"headofthousands。\"Inthesouth-westernpartofRussiathepopularassemblybecame，duringthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies，alocaladministrative，financial，andjudicialbody，butitlostallpoliticalpower。Inthenorthernprincipalities，andespeciallyinVladimirandMoscow，thefolkmotestotallyceasedtoexist。ThegrowthfirstofVladimirandthenofMoscowwasfollowedbythecompleteannihilationofthepoliticalrightsofthepeople，andthisseemstohavebeenrecognisedbythewritersoftheday。DescribingtheproceedingsbywhichtherepublicofNovgorodwassubjectedbytheTzar，IvantheThird，thechronicle，knownunderthenameofthePatriarchNikon，says：
\"Intheyear1478theTzardeclaredtotherepublic\"thathewantedNovgorodtobeintheexerciseofthesamepowerasthatwhichhepossessedatMoscow。\"Theinhabitantsagreedtocomplywithhiswishesoncertainterms，wherebyhisautocracywouldbelimited。TheTzarimmediatelysentthefollowingreply：\"ItoldyouthatIwantedinNovgorodastatesimilartothatofMoscow；
andinsteadofthatIhearyouteachingmehowIoughttoorganisemystateinawaydifferentfromwhatitisatpresent。\"
Onhearingthis，thecitizenssentanotherembassytoaskwhattheTzarmeantbysayingthathewantedinNovgorodagovernmentlikethatofMoscow。Heanswered：\"Nopopularassembly，veche；noelectedmagistrate；andthewholestateinthepoweroftheTzar。\"（2*）ThisanswerleftnodoubtastohisautocraticintentionsandtheiraccomplishmentintheMoscovitestate。
Letusnowinquireintothecauseswhichproducedthisincreaseofmonarchicalpower。ThefirstseemstohavebeenthegreatchangewhichhadbeenbroughtaboutintherelationsbetweentheprinceandthepopularassemblybythesubjectionoftheprincetothepoweroftheKhans。ItiswellknownthattheTartars，afterhavingestablishedthecentreoftheirEuropeanempireontheshoresoftheVolga，notfarfromwhereitjoinstheCaspianSea，intheneighbourhoodofthemoderncityofAstrachan，reducedthedifferentprincipalitiesofRussiatotheconditionofvassalstates。LeavingthegovernmentinthehandsofthedynastyofRuriktheyforcedtheRussianprincestoreceiveinvestitureatthehandsoftheirkhans。InsuchastateofthingstheprincehadnolongeranyneedtotroublehimselfabouthisacceptationbythepopularassemblyoftheprincipalitythatheintendedtogovernInordertosecurethethronetohimselfandhisheirs，allthathehadtodowastoundertakeajourneytothesouthernpartsoftheVolgaandmakehisappearanceatthecourtofhissuzerain——theKhan。Herehehadtolayoutlargesumsofmoneyinpresentsandbribes，untilatlasttheKhanwasinducedtograntacharter，\"jarlik，\"
acknowledgingtherightoftheclaimanttooccupythethroneofhisancestors。FromthebeginningofthefourteenthcenturytheMoscoviteprinceshadnolonger。toundertakethejourneyinperson，asthekhanshadconsentedtoforwardthecharterofconfirmationdirecttoMoscowonconditionthattheyfirstreceivedlargesumsofmoneyfromtheprincewhoclaimedthethrone。Thesuccessionwassettledateachvacancybyanagreementbetweenthesuzerainandthevassal，andthepopularassemblyhadnoopportunityofinterfering。
Foreignevents，especiallytheriseoftheFlorentineUnionandthecaptureofConstantinoplebytheTurks，alsolargelycontributedtotheincreaseoftheMoscoviteautocracy。
DuringtheperiodwhichbeganwiththeacceptanceofthetenetsoftheGreekChurchbytheRussianduke，Vladimir，attheendoftheeleventhcentury，andwhichendedwiththedecisionoftheByzantineEmperortosubscribetheactofunionwiththeRomanChurch，theRussianStateaswellastheRussianChurchremainedtoacertainextentdependentontheGreekPatriarchandEmperoratConstantinople。InecclesiasticalmattersthisdependencewasmanifestedinthedirectnominationoftheRussianMetropolitanbytheByzantinePatriarch，veryoftennotwithoutinterferenceonthepartoftheEmperor。Insecularmattersitwasrathertheoreticalthanpractical。TheRussianclergymorethanonceadvisedtheGrandDukeofMoscovytorecognisethe\"TzaroftheGreeks\"ashislordparamount，andeachtimetheyrepeatedthepopulartheorythattheByzantineEmperorwasthechiefofthewholeChristianworldandthereforethesovereignlordofallChristiankingsandpotentates。ThistheoryhadbeenfirstbroughtforwardbyByzantinewriters，whoactuallydeclaredthatConstantinetheGreathadconferredthetitleofTabulariusontherulerofRussiaasarecompenseforhisallegiancetotheGreekEmpire。Uptotheendofthefourteenthcenturythetitleof\"Tzar\"wasexclusivelyappliedinRussiatotheEmperorofConstantinople，andnoRussianprincewasallowedtodignifyhimselfwithit。TheRussianclergy，inofferingpublicprayerforthehealthoftheEmperoratConstantinople，spokeofhimasof\"theEmperoroftheRomansandRuleroftheUniverse。\"（3*）
TheattitudeofBasileusIII，GrandDukeofRussia，duringthetimeoftheFlorentineUnion，hisboldoppositiontothePatriarchPhotiusandtoanycompromisewiththeRomishChurch，ledtheRussianclergytolookuponhimandhisheirsasthechampionsoforthodoxyinreligion。WhiletheDukeofMoscovywasconsideredthesoleprotectoroftheGreekChurch，theEmperoratConstantinoplehadbecome，intheeyesoftheRussians，aschismatic。ItwasinordertofreeMoscovyfromalldependenceonaschismaticEmperorthattheaccountoftheconversionoftheEasternSlavstoChristianitywasaltered。TheapostleSt。
Andrew，who，accordingtoArmenianandGeorgiantraditionshadbeenthefirsttopreachtheGospelintheCaucasus，wasofficiallydeclaredtohavebeentheSt。JohntheBaptistoftheRussians；Constantinople，beingthusdeprivedofthehonourofbeingthebirthplaceofRussianChristianity，wasaccordinglydispossessedofanyrighttoexerciseecclesiasticalsupremacyovertheRussianChurch。
ThefallofConstantinople，whichcloselyfollowedtheFlorentineUnion，settledthequestionoftheecclesiasticalautonomyofRussia，andcontributedatthesametimetostrengthenthepoweroftheMoscoviteDuke。TheGreekChurchhadlosthersecularheadinthepersonofthelastEmperorofConstantinople，andtheSlavonicprincipalitiesoftheBalkanPeninsula，aswellasthesubjugatedGreeks，naturallyturnedtheireyestowardsthemostpowerfuloftheOrthodoxrulers。ThiswastheGrandDukeofMoscovy，whosefirmallegiancetotheancientcreed，anduncompromisingattitudetowardstheFlorentineUnion，contrastedfavourablywiththeattitudeofthelastEmperorstowardsthePopesofRome。PeoplewereledtoacknowledgethatthefallofConstantinoplewasawell-deservedpunishmentonaschismaticruler，andtheywerealsoinducedtobelievethattheconquestofthatcitybytheTurksoughttobetheoccasionforthetransferofcivilsupremacyovertheGreekChurchfromConstantinopletoMoscovy，fromtheEmperortotheGrandDuke。
TheseideasgrewinstrengthwhenthelastEmperor’ssister，SophiaPalaeologus，becamebymarriagethewifeandmotherofMoscovitePrinces。AreportwasspreadthattheimperialtitlehadbeentransferredtotheGrandDukeIvanbynolessapersonthanhiswife’sbrother，thelegalheiroftheByzantineEmpire。
TheGrandDukewasanointedwithgreatsolemnity，andreceivedthetitleof\"Tzar，\"atitlewhich，aswehaveseen，hadhithertobeenexclusivelygiventotheGreekEmperors。AnofferwhichtheGermanEmperormadethroughhisspecialenvoy，Herbertstein，tograntthetitleof\"king\"totheMoscoviteGrandDukeonconditionofhisrecognisinghisdependenceupontheHolyRomanEmpire，wassolemnlyrejected；andinordertoconfirmthenewtheoryofthecompleteautonomyoftheRussiantzardom，agenealogywasinvented，showingthedirectdescentofthehouseofRurikfromAugustusandhissupposedbrotherPruss，themythicalfounderofPrussia。Onefact，however，stoodinthewayofauniversalrecognitionofthesenewpretensionstocompleteautonomy；thatwasthecontinueddependenceoftheMoscoviterulersonthekhansoftheTartars。ButthiswasputanendtobyIvanIII，whowasconsequentlythefirsttoadornhimselfwiththetitleof\"Autocrat\"（Samoderjez），whichtothisdaycontinuestobethetitleoftheRussianTzars。
AsGreekmonks，andamongthemthewell-knownMaxime，begantosettleinRussia，ByzantineideasaboutthederivationofmonarchicalpowerfromGod，whichwerealreadyentertainedbysomeofourmonkishwriters，wererapidlyspreadamongthepeople。ItisnotwithoutgoodreasonthatthecelebratedantagonistofIvantheTerrible，PrinceKourbsky，accusesthemonksofhavingbeenthechiefsourceoftheserviletheory，accordingtowhich\"theTzar，inordertopreservehisindependence，oughttohavenocounsellorsmoreintelligentthanhimself。\"ThistheorywasacceptedwithaviditybysuchtyrantsasIvantheCruel，whoreferstoitmorethanonceinhiscorrespondencewiththePolishking，StephenBathory。Thefactthatthisprincewassurroundedbyasortofparliament，thePolishSeim，wasdeclaredbytheRussianTzartobeamanifestproofofhispoliticalinferiority。\"Autocracy（samoderjavsto），\"
accordingtoIvan’sidea，\"wasimpossiblewithanelectivecouncil；theautocratmustdoeverythingbyhimself；hehastogiveorderstohissubjects，andthese，lastmustobeylikeserfs，andthataccordingtothecommandofGod。\"
Theseideas，whichhadbeenexpressedcenturiesbeforebymonkishwriters，whohadfoundthemsetforthinByzantinetreatises，werefarfrombeingthoseofthegeneralityofRussianstatesmenandthinkers。WhenPrinceKourbskyadvisedthetyrantIvantoseekgoodandusefulcounsel，notonlyamongthemembersofhisdouma，asortofcuriaregis——butalsoamongtherepresentativesofthepeople——vsenarodnichchelovok——hegaveutterancetoanoldpoliticaldesire。Anothercontemporarywriter，theunknownauthorofTheSermonoftheSaintsofWalaam，giveswaytothesamefeelinginthefollowingterms：\"TheclergyoughttoadvisetheTzartokeepaconstantgeneralcouncil，composedofpersonscomingfromallthecitiesanddistrictsofhisdominions。Suchacouncilmustbekept，andtheiradvicetakendaybydayoneveryquestionwhichmayoccur。\"TwodifferentinstitutionsweremeantbythosewhoadvisedtheCzartorulebytheadviceofhiscouncillors。Onewasasoldasthemonarchyitself，andbelongedtothoseoldcustoms，which，accordingtocontemporarywriters，hadbeenscrupulouslymaintainedbyformerpotentates。IrefertothecounciloftheBoyars——theDouma。Theotherinstitution。thehistoryofwhichwillformtheprincipalsubjectofournextlecture，was，onthecontrary，quiterecent——theStates-GeneralofMoscovy，theZemskiiSobor。
IwillconcludewhatIhavetosayonthepoliticalorganisationofRussiaduringthatintermediateperiodwhichlastedfromthefalloftheancientfolkmotestotheconvocationoftheStates-Generalbyadescriptionofthefirst-namedcouncil，theDouma。（4*）ThestudyoftheinternalconstitutionoftheDoumaisindispensableforthecomprehensionofthePartwhichthehighernobilitywerecalledupontoplayinthemanagementoftheMoscoviteState。ItwillshowthatthepoweroftheMoscoviteprinces，absoluteasitwas，wasyettoacertainextentlimitedbythepowerofthenobility。UptothemiddleofthesixteenthcenturytheBoyarsweretheonlypersonsadmittedtotheexerciseofexecutive，military，andjudicialauthority。
Underthenameofvoevodswefindthemattheheadofprovinces，commandingtheirmilitaryforcesandmanagingtheiradministrativeinterests。AsmembersoftheDouma，theyhadtoadvisetheTzaronallkindsofpolitical，executive，military，andfinancialquestions。NolawwaspromulgateduntilafterpreviousdeliberationonitbytheDouma。ThesameDoumafurnishedthechiefrulersoftheStateduringtheminorityoftheTzar，anditwasinthiswaythatthepoweroftheBoyarsmadeitselffeltamongthelowerclassesofthepopulation，whosooncametolookuponthemasthechiefcauseoftheirmisery。
ThecompositionoftheMoscovitecouncilwasatthebeginningverylikethatwhichwefindinFranceundertheearlyCapetiankings。Thecuriaregiswaschieflyformedfromamongthehighcourtofficials，suchasthemajordome，themarshal，theconstable，thechancellororcancellarius，thecamererorcamerarius，etc。ThesamemaybesaidoftheMoscoviteDoumaofthefourteenthcentury，aswellasoftheprivycouncilofeachandeveryoftheprincipalitiesintowhichmedievalRussiawasdividedanteriortothecentralisinggrowthoftheMoscovitepower。ThebusinesstransactedatthecourtofaRussianprincebeingdistributedamongdifferentdepartments，theheadsofthesedepartmentsweresummonedtositinthecouncilandreceivedthenameofboyars。Moneybeingscarce，theboyarswerepaidfortheirservicesbythedonationofcrownlands，andthismodeofpaymentbeingknownunderthenameof\"pont，\"thesurnameoftheboyarswas\"pouteviiboyari。\"MostoftheboyarssummonedtositintheDoumawereexemptedfrommilitaryservice，andespeciallyfromthedutyofopposingtheenemyattheheadoftheirownretainers，notsomuchintheopencountryasintheirowncastles。Hencetheoriginofanothersurname\"wedenniiboiari\"
whichdistinguishedthemostpowerfulmembersoftheRussianmedievalnobility。Ifweinquireintotheoriginofthoseadmittedtotheprincelycouncil，weshallseethattheybelongedtothesameclassasthatwhichfurnishedofficerstothearmyandthechiefsofthecentralandprovincialadministration。ThisclassispreciselythatknowntotheAnglo-SaxonsasThanes，andtotheMerovingiankingsunderthetitleofAntrustions。ThepeculiarityofmedievalRussiaconsistedinthis，that，beingdividedintoagreatnumberofprincipalities，itlefttotheknightlyclassthelibertyoffreelychoosingtheprincewhomtheywouldliketofollow。TheRussianknightlyclass，correspondingtothe\"ministeriels\"offeudalGermany，theso-called\"slougililiudi\"or\"menofservice，\"wereauthorisedbycustomtoremainintheserviceofanyprinceaslongastheypleased，andtochangefromoneprincetoanotheraccordingtotheirownpleasure。Beforeattachinghimselftoanyprincethe\"manofservice\"signedasortofcontractwiththepoliticalheadofthecountryinwhichheintendedtosettle。Ontakingservice，acharterwasdeliveredtotheknightinwhichhisdutiesandrightswerepreciselystated，andtheprincehadnorighttoinfringetheseconditions。Incaseofbadtreatment，theknightfoundnodifficultyinleavingtheprincewhomhewasservingandinenteringintosimilarrelationswithsomeotherofthenumerouspettypotentates，whoruledovermedievalRussia。
ThisrightoffreelypassingfromtheserviceofoneprincetothatofanotherwasclearlyrecognisedbythefollowingsentenceinatreatysignedbytheprinceofTverwiththeGrandDukeofLithuania，Kasimir，aslateasthemiddleofthefifteenthcentury，1449；\"Ourbovarsandmenofservicemayfreelywithdrawfromoneofustotheother。\"Thisdocumentisprobablythelastrecognitionofthelibertyofremovalonceenjoyedbytheknightlyclass。
TheincreasingpoweroftheGrandDukeofMoscovycouldnottoleratethissurvivaloffederalautonomy。ThisprincedidnotobjecttothelibertyofremovalaslongasitservedhisownpurposesbyincreasingthenumberofpersonsseekingserviceintheMoscovitearmyandMoscovitecivilservice，butassoonasthetyrannyofsomeoftheGrandDukescausedtheirownknightstowithdrawtoPolandandLithuania，severemeasuresweretakentoputastoptothismovementofemigration。TheGrandDukebegantoconfiscatethegrantsofland（\"pomestie\"）ofthedepartingknights，andeverytimehecouldlayhandsononeofthesesecedershewassuretothrowhimintoprison，veryoftentogetherwithhiswifeandchildren。Theclergy，alwaysonthesideofthesecularpower，morethanoncelikenedthebehaviourofasecedingknighttotheconductofJudas，anddeclaredittobenotonlytreasonagainsttheStatebutalsoasinintheeyesofGod。
Keepinginmindthefactsjustmentioned，weshallhavenodifficultyinexplainingtheConcourseofknightsandmenoftheswordinthegrandduchyofMoscovy。Theterritorialextensionoftheduchyhadnecessitatedtheabolitionofagreatnumberofsmallprincipalities，andpersonsformerlybelongingtotherulingdynastiesandunitedbytiesofbloodtotheTzar，wereanxioustoenterhisservice。InthismannertheknightlyclassbegantonumberinitsranksawholegroupofprincelyfamilieswhowerethedescendantsofthosepotentateswhosedominionshadbeenconqueredandannexedbyMoscow。BeforelongthenumberofpersonsdesirousoftakingserviceundertheGrandDuketotallyexcludedthepossibilityofpersonalandseparateconventions，suchasthosewhichsettledthemutualrightsanddutiesofprinceandknightintheotherprincipalitiesofRussia。Thesepersonalagreementsweresupersededbyageneralenactment，whichdeclaredthatthemanofserviceoccupiedahigherorlowerrankinthepoliticalhierarchyaccording，first，tothedignityofthefamilytowhichhebelonged，and，secondly，tothenumberofyearshisfamilyhadbeenengagedintheMoscoviteservice。
Itwasgenerallyacknowledgedthataprincelyfamily——thatis，afamilythathadoncebelongedtothenumberofrulingdynasties，oughttohaveprecedenceoverallothersamonguntitlednobles。Whoevercouldshowamonghisancestorspersonsinahighofficialposthadtherighttorefuseanyinferiorsituation，especiallyinthosecasesinwhichapersonofacomparativelynewfamilywastobesetoverhimashissuperior。
Thisorderofprecedencewasmorethanoncesetasideinconsequenceofthelowconditiontowhichthisorthatwealthyfamilyhadbeenreducedbythelossofitsestates。ARussiannobleinamiserablestateofpovertywasaslittleentitledtooccupyahighofficialposition，aswasapennilessEnglishduke，orearl，totakehisseatintheHouseofLordsinthefifteenthcentury，inthereignofEdwardIV。
Therulesofprecedence，constitutingwhatourancestorsofthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiescalled\"mestnichestro，\"
werescrupulouslyobservedbothinthearmyandinthecivilservice。TheyalsofoundexpressionintheconstitutionoftheCouncilorDouma。Thetitlednobility，theprincelyfamilies，asarule，occupiedthehighestrankinthehierarchyofthecouncillors，therankof\"doumniboyars，\"orboyarsoftheCouncil。
AcertainnumberoftheoldMoscovitenobilitywereallowedtoretaintheiroriginalrank，buttherestofthenobleswerebydegreesloweredtothatofpersonswhoseonlydistinctionwastobe\"thechildrenofancientboyars。\"Thedocumentsofthetimespeakoftheminpreciselytheseterms，callingthem\"boiarskidieti，\"childrenoftheboyars。
ThesecondrankamongthemembersoftheDoumawasoccupiedbythoseknownunderthenameof\"ocolnichii，\"orpersonslivingimmediatelyabouttheDuke。ThisrankintheDoumabelonged，asarule，tomembersoftheoldMoscovitenobility，aswellastosomeofthesmallerprincelyfamilies。TheDukehadtherighttoconferonhis\"ocolnichy\"thehighertitleofboyarasarecompenseforhisservices。TherestoftheknightlyclasswereeitherentirelyunconnectedwiththeCouncilorweresimplysummonedtobepresentatsomeofitssittings。Theywereknownunderthegeneralnameof\"noblemenbelongingtotheDouma，\"
\"dumniidvoriani，\"andformedthethirdrankofCouncillors。
ThefourthorlowestrankintheCouncilwascomposedofthosemembersoftheknightlyclasswhocondescendedtoholdsecond-ratepostsinthedifferentexecutivebodiesoftheduchy，suchastheForeignOffice（\"Posolskyprikaz\"），ortheboardpresidingovertemporaryorlifegrantsofland（Pomesiniprikaz）。Thesesecond-ratebureaucrats，knownunderthenameofsecretaries，diaki，wereregularlyadmittedtothesittingsoftheCouncil，wheretheyformedthelowestbutbynomeanstheleastinfluentialorder。
FromwhathasbeensaiditwillbeseenthatautocraticpowerinRussiahadtodealwithcertaincounterpoisesandmoderatinginfluencesinthepoliticalconstitutionofthecountryevenafterthefalloftheancientfolkmotes。ThesechecksandrestraintshadtheirrootsintheoldpoliticalrightsexercisedbythechiefsofthealmostindependentprincipalitieswhichconstitutedtheunorganisedfederacyofRussianstates。WhilstsubmittingtothepoweroftheMoscoviteprince，theseonceindependentchiefsinsistedontherecognitionoftheirprivilegetobenextaftertheTzar，theprincipalrulerofthecountry。
Theso-calledmestnichestvowas，therefore，asortofunwrittenconstitution，recognisingineachofthemembersofthehighernobilityhisdistinctrighttoaplaceinthemachineryoftheState。Theloverclassesalonehadnopartintheconductofpublicaffairs。AnendwasputtothisanomaloussituationbytheconvocationoftheStates-General。TheoriginoftheseStates-General，orSobors，andtheirfurtherdevelopment，willformthesubjectofournextlecture。
NOTES：
1。Herbord，ii。15-30。
2。\"CompleteCollectionofRussianChronicles，\"vi。213。
3。CompareDiakonov，\"TheSupremePoweroftheMoscoviteTsars，\"
Petersburg，1889。
4。ThissubjecthasbeenveryablydiscussedbyProfessorKluchovsky。
ModernCustomsandAncientLawsofRussiabyMaximeKovalevsky1891
Lecture5。
OldRussianParliaments。
InourlastlectureweshowedwhatcausesproducedtheriseofmonarchicalpowerinRussia，andtriedtoprovethat，powerfulaswastheautocracyoftheCzarsofMoscovy，itwaslimitedbythepoliticalrightsofthehighernobility。TheexerciseoftheserightswasentrustedtotheDoumaorCouncil，andsimilarpowersinmattersecclesiasticalwerevestedinaHighCommission，oftenmentionedbytheauthorsofthetimeunderthenameoftheconsecratedSobor。ThisbodywascomposedoftheMetropolitan，Archbishops，Bishops，Archimandritesorvicarsofthebishops，andtheheadsoftheblackclergy，theabbotsorchiefsofmonasticcongregations。
Intheyear1550thesetwoassembliesofwhichtheonewasanalmostcompleterepresentationofthehighernobilityandbureaucracy，andthesecondofthehigherclergy，werechangedintoamoredemocraticparliamentbytheadditionofrepresentativesofthelowernobility，theregularmilitaryforce，andtheinhabitantsofcitiesandruraldistricts。WehaveverylittleinformationastothereasonwhichinducedtheGovernmenttoappealtothese\"menofthepeople，\"asthemembersofthisassemblyweregalledbycontemporarywriters。Wearetotallyignorantofitscomposition，andofthenatureofthebusinessitwascalledupontoperform。ThespeechwhichIvantheTerribledeliveredinitsfirstsessionis，however，wellknown。
Initheaccusestheboyarsofthemisgovernmentwhichcharacterisedthefirstyearsofhisreignandthrowsonthemthewholeresponsibilityforthemiseriesofthepeople。Heacknowledgedatthesametimetheimpossibilityofredressingoldwrongsbyjudicialmeansandentreatedallclassesofthepeopletocompoundforthembymeansofcompromises。Themeaningofthiswasthatallthejudgeswhowereaccusedofillegaldecisions，andofficialsresponsibleforadministrativewrongs，wereauthorisedtotreatwithinafixedtimedirectlywiththosewhohadcomplainedtotheCzaroftheirmisrule。SofarasappearsfromlaterdocumentsthewishoftheCzarwascompliedwithbyallclassesofthepeople。Vastreformsfollowedthisfirstessayofrepresentativeassemblies；theprincipleofelection，whichhadformerlyprevailedintheorganisationofthecommuneandthelowercourtsofjustice，wasreintroducedintheformofelectedjudgesandaldermen（goubniistarostiandzelovalniki）。ItisveryprobablethatthosemenwereconvenedtothefirstRussianparliamentwhohadacknowledgedthenecessityforsuchreforms，althoughwehavenocontemporarydocumentstoestablishthisfact。
TheamountofinformationwepossessaboutthesecondRussianparliament，whichwassummonedintheyear1566ismuchgreater。
Weknowthenumberofpersonsconvenedtoit，thedifferentclassesofthepeopletowhichtheybelonged，andthekindofbusinesstheyhadtoperform。Wemayevenguesswithacertaindegreeofprobabilitythewayinwhichtheyexercisedtheirconsultativeanddeliberativefunctions。Intheyear1558theRussianmilitaryforceswereengagedinawarwithPoland。ThiswarhaditsriseinthedisputesoftheTeutonicKnightssettledinLivonia，withthegrowingpowerofRussia。Losingoneafteranothertheirchieffortresses，theOrder，throughtheirGrandMasterGotthardKettler，enteredintocorrespondencewiththePolishking，Sigismund，andproposedtoaccepthissuzeraintyonconditionthatheshouldwithhisarmyopposethefurtherencroachmentsofRussia。Thisofferwasaccepted，andRussiahadtodecidewhethersheshouldwithdrawfromtheLivonianstrongholdswhichwerealreadyinherpowerorgotowarwithPoland。UnderthesecircumstancesIvantheTerrible，beforecomingtoadecision，wishedtotaketheadvicenotonlyofthehigherclergy，themembersofhisDouma，andthehighofficersofState，withthetreasurersandsecretariesattheirhead。butalsoofthelowernobility，theclassdirectlyengagedinmilitaryservice，andthoseofthethirdestate，whosebusinessitwastocollectthetaxesfromtheurbanpopulation。
IfwescrutinisethecompositionofthissecondRussianParliament，wearestartledbythefactthatwiththeexceptionofthreegentlemenfromToropeczk，sixfromLouczk，andtwenty-twocitizensfromthecityofSmolensk，allitsmemberswerepersonsresidinginMoscowRussianhistorianshavegenerallyexplainedthisanomalybysayingthattheGovernment，havingnotimetoawaitthearrivalofdeputiesfromtheprovinces，contenteditselfwithconsultingsuchmilitarymenaswerethenpresentatMoscow，exceptionbeingmadeonlyastotheinhabitantsofsomewesterncitiesanddistrictswhoseinterestsweredirectlyengagedintheimpendingwar。SuchwasthecasewithSmolensk，Louczk，andToropeczk。Ifthiswasso，theAssemblyof1566wouldhavenorighttofigureinthelistofRussianParliaments，beingnothingbutalocalAssembly，somethinglikethose\"etatsgenerauxfractionnes，\"whichwereknowninFranceduringagreatpartofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies。Butsuchisnotreallythecase。（1*）ThewayinwhichthemilitaryclasswasrepresentedattheParliamentof1566findsitsexplanationintheorganisationofthearmyatthattime。Itwasthencomposedoffiveregiments，quarteredindifferentprovinces，eachregimentcontainingagreaterorsmallernumberof\"districthundreds。\"Thehundredwasnotanumerical，butalocaldivision。Asarule，theheadshipofeveryhundredwasentrusted，nottoalocalmilitaryman，buttosomeMoscovitenobleman，residinginthemetropolis，butpossessingestatesinthedistricttowhichthehundredbelonged。UnderthecircumstancesIhavedescribed，theCzar，beforegoingintothenewwar，wasnaturallydesirousofconsultingthemenwhohadthelocalcommandofhisarmy，thoseMoscovitenoblemenwhowereplacedattheheadofthelocalhundreds。Theirusualplaceofabodebeingthemetropolis，itiseasytounderstandwhyinhabitantsofMoscowwerealmosttheonlymensummonedtoattendtheParliament。WhentheSoborwasconvenedthearmyhadjustreturnedfromitslastexpeditionagainstLithuaniaandallthemilitarychiefswouldthenbeinMoscow。Thesechiefs，ashasbeenalreadymentioned，werepaidfortheirservicesnotbyafixedsalary，butbydonationsoflandgrantedforthetermofservice，whichpracticallyamountedtoalifetenure，andwereknownbythenameofpomestie。（2*）Thequantityoflandcorrespondedtothepositionheldintheranksofthearmy。Somereceivedonlyonehundredandfiftydesiatin，（3*）sometwohundredandtwenty-five，someeventhreehundred，andthesedifferencesledtothedivisionofthemilitaryclassesintothreegroupscalledstatii。TheSoborof1566containedninety-sevenmembersfromthefirstclassandninety-nineofthesecond；amongthelowergroupwefindonlythirty-fivefromToropeczkandsixfromLouzck。
Astothethirdestate，itwasrepresentedbyseventy-fivemen，allbelongingtotheMoscovitetradingclass。ThereasonofthismustbesoughtinthecontemporaryorganisationoftheRussianbourgeoisie。DuringthesecondpartofthesixteenthcenturywefindinMoscowtwodifferentclassesoftradesmen：oneknownunderthenameof\"hosts\"（gosti），theotherunderthatof\"merchants\"（koupzi）。BothclassescontainedintheirranksnotonlyMoscovitetradesmen，butalsotradesmenfromothercities。
Thewealthyandinfluentialmerchantsofthewholeempirewereinscribedinthelistofthe\"hosts，\"therestcomposedthatofthe\"merchants。\"Thislatterclasswassub-dividedintoMoscoviteandSmolenskmerchants，thelatterbeingthose，whosecommercewaschieflyconfinedtothewesternprovincesofRussiaanditsnaturalheadSmolensk。Inthesixteenthcenturythesesamesub-divisionsre-appearundersomewhatdifferentnames，theonebeingcalledthehundredof\"hosts\"（gostinnaiasotnia）andtheotherthehundredof\"drapers\"（soukonnaiasotnia）。ThedivisionsIhavementionedweretheworkofthecentralgovernment，whichregardedthewealthiermerchantsasitsdirecthelpersinthedifficulttaskofcollectingcustomsandexciseduties。
NopersonbelongingtotheGuildof\"hosts\"couldrefusetoperformtheseheavyandresponsibleduties。Theman，onwhomthechoiceofhiscompanionsfell，wasobligedtoremovetothecitywhosetaxeshehadtocollect。Sothattheexerciseofsuchfunctionsmightbeentrustedtopersonsofgreatlocalinfluence，theelectionfell，asarule，onamerchantpossessingestatesorlargestocksofmerchandiseinthecitywhichhewascalledtoadminister。Liketheguildofhosts，theguildsofMoscoviteandSmolenskmerchantswerecalledupontoassisttheGovernmentintheexerciseofitsfinancialauthorityandaccordinglyelectedamongthemselvestheofficersoftheexciseandcustomsadministrationofthesmallerurbandistricts。
Itiseasytounderstandthatbeforeengaginginanewwar，whichwouldnecessarilycausenewandheavyexpenses，theCzarwoulddesiretoobtaininformationastothepecuniaryresourcesofthecountryfromthosepersonswhosedutyitwouldbetocollectthetaxes。He，therefore，summonedtotheSoborthetradesmenoftheGuildofhostsandalsotheMoscoviteandSmolenskmerchants，or，inotherwords，allthosewhohadthechargeofcollectingtherevenuesofindirecttaxation，notonlyinthemetropolis，butthroughouttheempire。Composedasitwasofthehighofficials，themembersofthecouncil，thearchbishops，bishops，archimandrites，abbots，andthelocalheadsofthemilitaryandfinancialadministration，theSoborof1566
wasnotsomuchtherepresentativeofthepeopleasofthegoverningclass。Itis，therefore，difficulttospeakofitsanalogywiththerepresentativeassembliesofWesternEurope，thoughsomeoftheelementsofwhichitwascomposed，aretobefoundbothintheSwedishandtheGermanparliaments。InSwedenthearmywascalledupontosenditsgenerals，colonels，andevenitsmajorstothesittings，atleastfrom1598to1778。（4*）IntheGermanLandestande，aswellasintheSwedishStates-General，thecitieswereregularlyrepresentedbytheirofficers，theRathmanner，membersofthecitycouncil，orRattaborgare，astheywerecalledinSweden，justastheFrenchcitiesandboroughswereusuallyrepresentedintheEtatsGeneraux，notbyelecteddeputies，butbytheirmaires，echevinsandconsuls。（5*）
NowthatweareacquaintedwiththemannerinwhichthefirstSobor，thisrealassemblyofnotables，wascomposed，letustakealookatitsproceedings。ThequestiononwhichtheCzarwantedadvicewaswhetherheshouldengageinanewwarwithPoland，orwhetheritwouldbebetterforhimtorestoretoKasimirthecitieswhichhehadconqueredinLithuania。Eachestatehadtogiveaseparateanswer。Theclergydeclareditselfinfavourofwar。TheymaintainedthatLivoniahadalwaysbelongedtoRussia，apreposterousclaimwhichwasplainlycontradictedbyhistory。
WhilstinsistingontheimpossibilityofconcludingpeaceonthetermsproposedbyKasimir，theydeclaredthemselvesincapableofjudgingwhatmeanstheGovernmentoughttotakeforthesafetyofitsnewconquests。\"TheCzaralonemustdecidethematter。Itisnotourbusinesstoadvisehimonsuchquestions，buttoprayGodforthesuccessofhisundertakings。\"Thisplainlymeantthattheyfearedanewimpositionofsubsidies，andhadnodesiretotakeonthemselvestheinitiativeofthistaxation。
Theboyarsgaveasimilaranswer。\"Itisimpossible，\"saidthey，\"toleaveinthehandsofthePolishkingthenewlyconqueredGermancities，forinthatcasetheimportantRussianfortressofPolozksituatedontheDvina，wouldremainsurroundedbythelandsoftheenemy。\"TheyalsodeclaredthemselvesreadytoservetheCzarwhatevermightbehisdecision。\"GodaloneandtheCzar，\"suchwastheirconclusion，\"oughttohavethelastwordinthismatter。\"SomedissentientmembersoftheDoumapresentedtheirownopinioninwriting。Thenoblemenofthefirstandsecondclassorstatii，alsoexpressedtheiropinionsintwodifferentpapersandwereunanimousintheirdesiretoretaintheLivoniancities。ThoseofToropeczkandLouczk，whoweremoredirectlyconcernedinthematter，declaredthattheywouldsacrificetheirlivesforasingle\"dessiatine\"ofthecitiessurroundingPolozkwhichwereclaimedbythePolishking。ThehostsandmerchantsofMoscowandSmolenskwerenotlesspatrioticintheirsentiments，thelatterparticularlyinsistingontheimpossibilityofleavingPolozkwithoutaterritorialdistrictattachedtoit。\"Avillagecannotexistwithoutitsowndistrictandstilllessafortress，\"saidthey。\"IfthekingofPolandgetstheterritoryofPolozkthatcitywillbeofnousetotheRussians，andnothingwillpreventthekingbuildinganewfortressjustoppositetheRussianfortress。\"
ThegeneralresultoftheconferencewasthattheCzardecidedonwar。
WefindnootherGeneralAssemblyinthereignofIvantheTerrible，butwemustnotinferfromthatfactthattheCzaraltogetherforboretoapplytothepeople。OntwodifferentoccasionswefindhimaddressingthemobofMoscow，oncein1564，inordertogettheirapprovaloftheprosecutionoftheboyarsfortheirsupposedtreasonagainsttheStateandopenplunderingofthepeople；andasecondtimetoascertaintheirfeelingsontheoccasionofafreshdiscomfitureoftheRussiantroopsbythePolesandtheloss，notonlyofLivonia，butofPolozkandSmolensk。Thislastconventionwasintheyear1597andwastheoccasionofalongandpatrioticspeechdelivered，inthenameoftheCzar，byhissecretarySchelkalov。Thisspeech，whichannouncedthelossofthousandsofRussiansoldiers，producedagreatimpression，chieflyonthewomen，who，fearingtheirhusbandsweredead，wentcryingthroughthestreetsandaskingfornewones。Whereuponthesecretarymadeasecondspeechinwhichhethreatenedtohavethemfloggediftheydidnotceasetheirlamentations。Wethusfindtheexperimentofadmittingthepeopletothediscussionofpublicaffairsdegenerating，eitherintoappealstotheMoscowmobtosanction，byitsconsent，actsofcrueltytowardsthemembersofthehighernobility，orintothreatsoffloggingmadetopoorweepingwomenintheirbereavement。
ItisdifficulttodiscoverinthefactswhichIhavejustrelatedanyresemblancetoaregularconsultationofthepeopleinParliamentassembled。Themeetingsaremorelikeaparodyoftheancientfolkmotes，theveche。
TherepresentativesystemremainedunknowntoRussiathroughoutthesixteenthcentury。TheAssemblywhichin1584
confirmedtherightoftheeldestsonofIvan，Theodor，tooccupytheRussianthrone，althoughcalled\"aparliament\"bytheEnglishResidentHoarsavwas，accordingtothesameauthor，composedofnothingbutthechiefclergyandmembersofthehigherandlowernobility。Anotherassembly，thatof1585，calledtodeliberateonthequestionofclericalimmunitiesandthenecessityforsubjectingthelandsofmonasteriestogeneraltaxation，containedinitsranksonlythehigherclergy，thechiefofficersoftheState，andthemembersoftheCouncilorDouma。
TheRurikfamilybecameextinctonthedeathoftheCzarTheodor，andanewdynastyhadtobechosen。ThehighernobilityseizedthisopportunitytoimposecertainlimitationsontheexerciseoftheSovereignpower。Butthenearestcandidatetothethrone，BorisGodounov，notbeingwillingtoconsenttosuchlimitations，refusedtoacceptthethroneofferedhimbytheboyarsandinsistedonthenecessityofsummoningthecitiestodecidewhoshouldoccupythethroneoftheRurikfamily。Hedidthisintheexpectationthatthepeoplewouldopposeanymeasurelimitingtheprincipleofautocracy。TheSobor，whichwascalledtogetheraccordingtohiswish，waswidelydifferentfromtheidealofatrulyNationalAssembly。Ofthe457memberswhowerepresentatitssittings，83belongedtothehigherclergy，and338tothebureaucracyandthehigherandlowernobility。Astothethirdestate，itwascomposedofonly21hosts，oftheheadoftheGuildofhostsandof13deputiesfromtheruraldistricts。ThisassemblywaspresidedoverbythePatriarch，theChiefoftheRussianclergy，andunanimouslyexpresseditselffavourabletoBorisGodounov，towhomtheRussianthronewasofferedunconditionally。
RepresentativesofthelowerclassesofthecityofMoscowappearedin1605attheSobortowhichthefalseDemetriusentrustedtherightofjudgingtheboyarandfutureCzar，BasiliusSchouisky，onaccountofarebellionwhichhehadinstigated。TheSoborcondemnedSchouiskytodeath，buttheCzarDemetriuscommutedthispunishmenttoperpetualbanishmenttotheCityofViatka，whencehesoonreturnedatthegraciousorderofthemonarch。
TheAssemblywhichin1606，afterthedeathofthefalseDemetrius，electedSchouiskyastheCzarofRussia，wasnotaSoborinthetruesenseoftheword，foritwaschieflycomposedoftheboyars。TheMoscowmobneverthelesssanctionedtheelection，andthenewCzarwaseagerlyproclaimedattheso-called\"readplace，\"infrontofthepalace。
ThiselectionofSchouiskyhassomeclaimtoourattention，asitwasthefirstatwhichconstitutionallimitswereimposedonRussianautocracy。ThenewlyelectedCzarhadnoimmediaterelationwiththedynastyofRurik，andwasbuttheequaloftheotherboyars。Hewasknowntobevindictiveandtohaveagreatnumberofrelationsandfriendswhowouldbereadyenoughtomakeuseofhispowerfortheirownadvantage。Allthisinducedtheboyarstoprotecttheirowninterestsbythecreationofruleswhichtheirnomineewasobligedtoaccept。AccordingtoStrahlenberg，thewell-knownauthorofthe\"historicalandGeographicalDescriptionoftheNorthernandEasternpartsofEuropeandAsia\"（abookwritteninGermanandpublishedatStockholmintheyear1703），theconstitutionallimitationsimposedwereasfollows：\"NonewlawwastobemadeandnoinnovationsweretobeintroducedintheoldlegislationwithouttheconsentoftheDouma。（Strahlenbergcallsitsenatus。）NonewcontributionsweretobeleviedunlesspreviouslydiscussedandacceptedbythesameCouncil。\"（6*）Theseconstitutionallimitationsasyoumayeasilyperceive，wereexactlythesameasthoseestablishedinEnglandbytheMagnaChartaandthestatuteofEdwardtheFirst，detallagiononconcedendo，butwhilsttheEnglishpeopleentrustedthecareoftheirlibertytothelords，gentlemen，andcitizensinParliamentassembled，theRussianboyarswantedtokeeptothemselvestheexclusivecontrolofthesovereignpower。Thiscausedthefailureoftheirconstitution，andwasthechiefreasonwhy，ontheoccasionofanewelection，thecontroloftheConstitutionalcompromiseenteredintobythepeopleandtheCzar，wasnolongerentrustedtotheDoumaoftheboyars，buttotherepresentativeAssemblyofthewholenation——
thatistotheSobor。
Schouiskyreignedonlyafewyears。In1610helostthecrownbythedecisionofanewAssemblywhichassumedthetitleofZemskiSobor，althoughitwaschieflycomposedoftheboyarsandtheMoscowmob。ThistookplaceinthemiddleofJuly。AmonthlateratreatywassignedbytheboyarsandthechiefofthePolisharmy，bywhichVladislas，sonofSigismund，kingofPoland，wascalledtothethroneofRussia。Likehispredecessor，thenewCzaracceptedcertainconstitutionallimitations，amongstothersthatofadministeringjusticeaccordingtotheexistingcustomsandtherulesbylawestablished。Noalterationsinthelattercouldbemade，exceptwiththeconsentoftheCouncil（Douma）of\"thewholeland。\"TheselastwordsmeanttheZemskiSobor，theStates-GeneralorParliamentofRussia。
IshallnotattempttonarratetheeventswhichpreventedtheaccessionofaPolishandCatholicprincetothethroneofRussia。Itwillbeenoughformypurposetostatethatthepeopleandtheclergywereunanimousintheirdisliketothisforeignand\"heretical\"ruler。Thefolkmotes，orveches，notonlyinNovgorod，butalsointhosepartswheretheyhadhithertobeenquiteunknown，asinKasan，orNijniNovgorod，enteredintocorrespondencewitheachother，localmilitiaunited，andanarmy，calledintoexistencebythepatrioticsentimentsofsimpleburgesseslikeMinin，marchedfromNijniNovgorodtoMoscow，underthecommandofPojarsky。AtthesametimeacorrespondencewasbegunwiththeobjectofforminganewSobor，whichwastobeareallyrepresentativebody，composedofdelegatessentbyalltheestates。Thewritsofsummonssentoutbytheheadofthearmy，Pojarsky，havefortunatelybeenpreserved，sothatwecangetaclearnotionofwhatwasmeantatthattimebytheterm\"GeneralCounciloftheland，\"atermemployedmorethanonceinthedocumentsofthetime。AddressingthepeopleofPoutivlorofWichegodsk，thecommander-in-chiefinsistsonthenecessityofsendingtoJaroslav，theplaceselectedforthemeetingofthenewAssembly，twoorthreemenfromeachoftheestates（chinov）
ofthenation。FromJaroslavtheSobor，followingthearmy，removedtoMoscow，whereitsatincommonwiththeboyarsofthecouncil，thehighcommissionoftheclergy（osviascheniniSobor），andtherepresentativesoftheregularandirregularmilitaryforces，thatis，theStrelziandtheCossacks。ItwasthisAssemblywhichelectedMichaelTheodorovichRomanovtobeCzarofRussia。
BeforeproceedingtotheelectionoftheCzar，theSoborcalledonalltheinhabitantsofthecountrytofastforthreeconsecutivedays。Itthenpassedalaw，duemainlytotheinfluenceofthepopularsectionoftheAssembly，prohibitingtheelectionofanyforeignprince。ThenobilitywouldhavehadnoobjectiontotheplacingofaSwedishorPolishpretenderonthevacantthrone。ThehigherandlowerordersdifferedwidelyastothemantheywishedtochoosefromamongtheRussianboyars；thenamesofGolitzin，Vorotinsky，Troubezkoy，andeventhatofthedethronedBasiliusSchouisky，were，foratime，tobefoundonthelistofcandidatessupportedbythenobility。ThefirsttodeclarehimselfinfavouroftheyoungRomanovwasoneofhisrelationsnamedScheremetiev，andhisproposalwasfavourablylistenedtobythelowernobility，theCossacksandtheburgesses。Hiselection，however，wassounexpectedaneventthathisownfather，abishopthencloselyimprisonedbythePoles，wasthefirsttosuggest，inaletterwrittentoScheremetiev，thatcertainconstitutionallimitsshouldbeimposedOnthepowerofthefutureCzar。Strahlenberg（7*）isquitecorrectinhisstatementthattheideaoftheselimitationswasborrowedfromPolandwherealreadyinthemiddleofthesixteenthcentury，underStephenBathory，theStates-General，orSeim，andtheCouncilpossessedconsiderablerights。ThereasonswhichoperatedinfavouroftheyoungMichaelRomanovwere，firstofall，hisrelationshipwiththeextinctdynastyofRurikthroughhisgreataunt，AnastasiaRomanov，whowasoneofthewivesofivantheTerrible；secondly，thesmallnumberofrelationswhichwaslookeduponasasafeguardagainstfurtherdepredationsonthedemesnelandsintheformofbeneficiarydonations；andthirdly，thepopularityofhisfamily，whichhadbeenpersecutedbytheboyarsfromthetimeofBorisGodounov。Hisfather，Philarete，whohadbeenforcedtobecomeamonk，wasespeciallyendearedtothenationbyhisvirtues；hehadattainedahighpositionamongtheclergy，havingbeenmadeBishopofJaroslav。
ThelatePatriarchGermogen，whohadbeenmuchbelovedbythepeople，hadalsobeenfavourablydisposedtowardstheelectionofyoungRomanov，andthisfactcontributedgreatlytosecurehimthesympathyoftheclergy。AtthetimeofhiselectionMichaelwasbutaboyoffifteen，andhisfatherbeingaprisonerinMagdeburgh，Scheremetievandthemembersofhispartylookeduponitashighlyprobablethattherealgovernmentwouldpassintotheirhands。
TheSovereignpowerwhichwasofferedtoyoungRomanovwasfarfrombeingthesameasthatenjoyedbyIvantheTerrible。
AutocraticpowerhadhadtoyieldbeforethenewtheoriesofconstitutionallimitationsdirectlyimportedfromPoland。ThatMichaelhadtosignacompromiseisafactbrieflymentionedbyRussianeye-witnesses，suchasKotoschichin，aswellasbyforeignersthenresidinginRussia。ThechroniclesofthecityofPskovspeakofitincontemptuousterms。Itwasnotenough，saythey，fortheboyarstohavereducedthecountrytothemiserablestatetowhichtheyhadbroughtit。Theywantedtogooninthesamewayofpillageandoppression；theyhadnoregardfortheCzar，didnotfearhimonaccountofhisyouth，andallthemoresosincetheyhadinducedhim，atthetimeofhisaccessiontothethrone，totakeanoath，bywhichherenouncedtherightofinflictingcapitalpunishmentonpersonsbelongingtothehighernobility。Capitalpunishmentwastobesupersededbycloseimprisonment。NomentionismadeinthechroniclesofanyfurtherlimitationoftheSovereignpoweroftheCzar。
Thewell-knownKotoschichin，whowasaliveatthetime，speakingoftheaccessionoftheCzarAlexis，sonofMichaelRomanov，noticesthefactthat，\"contrarytothecustomestablishedbyhispredecessor，thenewCzarsignednocharterbywhichheundertooktoinflictcapitalpunishmentonlyinaccordancewithlawandjustice，andtoconsulttheboyarsandmenoftheDoumaoneachandeveryquestionconcerningthegovernmentoftheland，sothatnodecisionmightbecometowithouttheirassent。\"AlthoughKotoschichinspeaksmorepositivelyastotheconstitutionalcharacterofthelimitationsimposedonRussianautocracyinthefirstquarteroftheseventeenthcentury，wemustnoticethefactthathesaysnothingofthepartwhichtheSobororParliamentwascalledupontoplayinthisexperimentinlimitedmonarchy。HementionsonlytheboyarsandthemenoftheDouma，not\"thoseoftheland，\"aphraseusedatthattimewhenspeakingofthemembersoftheZemskiSobor。
TheSwedishwriter，Fokkerodt，ismoreexplicitwhenheaffirmsthatinthecompromisesignedbyMichael，theyoungCzarpromisedtogivefreecoursetothejudicialproceedingsofthecourts，soastoinflictnopunishmentonhisownauthority，tointroducenonewlawwithouttheconsentoftheSobor，toabstainfromlevyinganytaxwithouttheconsentofthisrepresentativeAssembly，andtobeginnowarwithoutitscounselandapprobation。
AstoStrahlenberg，hisstatementisasfollows：BeforethecoronationMichaelwasforcedtoacceptthefollowingconditions：
Hepromisedto（1）upholdandprotecttheexistingcreedofRussia；（2）tokeepnomemoryofinjuriesinflictedonhisfamily，toforgetandtoforgiveallpastanimosities；（3）Hetookalsotheobligationtomakenonewlawsoralteroldones，andtotakenoimportantmeasurewhichmightcontradicttheexistinglaws，orsuspendthelegalproceedingsofthecourtofjustice。（4）Hepromisedaswelltobeginnowarsandtomakenopeacebyhisownwill。（8*）
ThisviewofthepoweroftheSoborisconfirmedbythefactofitsquasi-permanentpresenceatMoscowduringthewholereignofthefirstRomanov。Thelawsandproclamationsissuedatthattimegenerallycontainthefollowingcharacteristicexpression：
\"Accordingtoourorder（oukas）andthedecisionofthewholeland（povseizemliprigovorou）。\"ThewholelandcannotmeananythingelsethantherepresentativesinParliamentassembled。
ManyimportantquestionswerediscussedandsettledbytheSobor。InthefirstyearsofthereignwantofmoneyobligedtheCzarmorethanoncetohaverecoursetoforcedloansandbenevolences。Thesewereleviedsidebysidewiththeregulartaxesonthegoodsofmerchantsandpeasants（torgoviiisoschniiliudi）；thetaxesreceivedtheconsentoftheSobor，thebenevolenceswereendorsedbyit。ThenominationofanewPatriarchin1619wasalsotheirwork。Theannalsofthetimetellusthattheboyars，thedignitariesoftheCourt，andallthepeopleofthe\"MoscoviteState\"calledonMichaelandaskedhimtoinducehisfatherPhilaretetoaccepttheprimacyoftheRussianchurch。Twoyearslater，in1621，anewSoborwasconsultedonthequestionastowhetherRussiashouldgotowarwithPoland。TheEstatesgaveananswerintheaffirmative，butthewantofmoneyandsoldiersforcedtheGovernmenttopostponetheexecutionofthisdecision。
From1622theSoborslosetheircharacterofquasi-constantassemblies，eachremaininginsessionforseveralyearsandbegintobecalledonlyonspecialoccasions，whenevertheirserviceswererequiredforthesettlementofimportantquestionsofState。
In1632warwithPolandnecessitatedthelevyingofnewsubsidies。TheSoborWasaccordinglyassembledandgaveitsconsenttotheimpositionofageneraltaxonalltheestatesoftheempire，onthetradesmenasonthe\"menofservice。\"Theamountofmoneytobedemandedfromthelatterwasnotfixed；
