MeanwhileintheMexicanpartoftheviceroyaltyofNewSpainthecryofindependenceraisedbyMorelosandhisbandsofIndianfollowershadbeenstifledbythecaptureandexecutionoftheleader。Butthecauseofindependencewasnotdeadevenifitsachievementwastobeentrustedtootherhands。EagertoemulatetheexampleoftheirbrethreninSouthAmerica，smallpartiesofSpaniardsandCreolesfoughttooverturnthedespoticruleofFerdinandVII，onlytoencounterdefeatfromtheroyalists。ThencametheRevolutionof1820inthemothercountry。Forthwithdemandswereheardforarecognitionoftheliberalregime。
Fearfulofbeingdisplacedfrompower，theviceroywiththesupportoftheclergyandaristocracyorderedAgustindeIturbide，aCreoleofficerwhohadbeenanactiveroyalist，toquellaninsurrectioninthesouthernpartofthecountry。
Thechoiceofthissoldierwasunfortunate。Personallyambitiousandcherishinginsecretthethoughtofindependence，Iturbide，faithlesstohistrust，enteredintonegotiationswiththeinsurgentswhichculminatedFebruary24，1821，inwhatwascalledthe\"PlanofIguala。\"Itcontainedthreemainprovisions，or\"guarantees，\"astheyweretermed：themaintenanceoftheCatholicreligiontotheexclusionofallothers;theestablishmentofaconstitutionalmonarchyseparatefromSpainandruledbyFerdinandhimself，or，ifhedeclinedthehonor，bysomeotherEuropeanprince;andtheunionofMexicansandSpaniardswithoutdistinctionofcasteorprivilege。Atemporarygovernmentalso，intheformofajuntapresidedoverbytheviceroy，wastobecreated;andprovisionwasmadefortheorganizationofan\"ArmyoftheThreeGuarantees。\"
Despiteoppositionfromtheroyalists，theplanwonincreasingfavor。Powerlesstothwartitandinclinedbesidestoapolicyofconciliation，thenewviceroy，JuanO’Donoju，agreedtoratifyitoncondition——inobediencetoasuggestionfromIturbide——thatthepartiesconcernedshouldbeatliberty，iftheydesired，tochooseanyoneasemperor，whetherhewereofareigningfamilyornot。Thereupon，onthe28thofSeptember，theprovisionalgovernmentinstalledatthecityofMexicoannouncedtheconsummationofan\"enterpriserenderedeternallymemorable，whichageniusbeyondalladmirationandeulogy，loveandgloryofhiscountry，beganatIguala，prosecutedandcarriedintoeffect，overcomingobstaclesalmostinsuparable\"——anddeclaredtheindependenceofa\"MexicanEmpire。\"TheactwasfollowedbytheappointmentofaregencytogovernuntiltheaccessionofFerdinandVII，orsomeotherpersonage，totheimperialthrone。
OfthisbodyIturbideassumedthepresidency，whichcarriedwithitthepowersofcommanderinchiefandasalaryof120，000
pesos，paidfromthedayonwhichthePlanofIgualawassigned。
O’Donojucontentedhimselfwithmembershipontheboardandasalaryofone—twelfththatamount，untilhisspeedydemiseremovedfromthescenethelastoftheSpanishviceroysinNorthAmerica。
Onestepmorewasneeded。LearningthattheCortesinSpainhadrejectedtheentirescheme，Iturbideallowedhissoldierstoacclaimhimemperor，andanunwillingCongresssawitselfobligedtoratifythechoice。OnJuly21，1822，thedestiniesofthecountrywerecommittedtothechargeofAgustintheFirst。
AsintheareaofMexicoproper，sointheCentralAmericanpartoftheviceroyaltyofNewSpain，theSpanishRevolutionof1820
hadunexpectedresults。HereinthefivelittleprovincescomposingthecaptaincygeneralofGuatemalatherewasmuchunrest，butnothingofaseriousnatureoccurreduntilafternewshadbeenbroughtofthePlanofIgualaanditsimmediateoutcome。
ThereuponapopularassemblymetatthecapitaltownofGuatemala，andonSeptember15，1821，declaredthecountryanindependentstate。Thisradicalactaccomplished，thepatriotleaderswereunabletoproceedfurther。Demandsfortheestablishmentofafederation，forarecognitionoflocalautonomy，forannexationtoMexico，wereallheard，andnone，exceptthelast，wasanswered。Whilethe\"Imperialists\"and\"Republicans\"werearguingitout，amessagefromEmperorAgustinannouncedthathewouldnotallowthenewstatetoremainindependent。Onsubmissionofthemattertoavoteofthecabildos，mostofthemapprovedreunionwiththenorthernneighbor。SalvadoraloneamongtheprovincesheldoutuntiltroopsfromMexicoovercameitsresistance。
OnthecontinentsofAmerica，Spainhadnowlostnearlyallitsitspossessions。In1822theUnitedStateshadalreadyacquiredEastFloridaonitsownaccount，ledoffinrecognizingtheindependenceoftheseveralrepublics。OnlyinPeruandCharcastheroyalistsstillbattledonbehalfofthemothercountry。IntheWestIndies，SantoDomingofollowedtheleadofitssistercoloniesonthemainlandbyassertingin1821itsindependence;
butitsbriefindependentlifewassnuffedoutbythenegroesofHaiti，oncemorearepublic，whospreadtheircontrolovertheentireisland。Cubaalsofelttheimpulseofthetimes。But，apartfromtheagitationofsecretsocietieslikethe\"RaysandSunsofBolivar，\"whichwassoonchecked，thecolonyremainedtranquil。
InPortugueseAmericatheknowledgeofwhathadoccurredthroughouttheSpanishdominionscouldnotfailtoawakenadesireforindependence。ThePrinceRegentwaswellawareofthediscontentoftheBrazilians，buthethoughttoallayitbysubstantialconcessions。In1815heproceededtoelevatethecolonytosubstantialequalitywiththemothercountrybyjoiningthemunderthetitleof\"UnitedKingdomofPortugal，Brazil，andtheAlgarves。\"ThenextyearthePrinceRegenthimselfbecameKingunderthenameofJohnIV。Theflameofdiscontent，nevertheless，continuedtosmolder。Republicanoutbreaks，thoughquelledwithoutmuchdifficulty，recurred。EventhereformswhichhadbeeninstitutedbyJohnhimselfwhileRegent，andwhichhadassuredfreercommunicationwiththeworldatlarge，onlyemphasizedmoreandmoretheabsurdityofpermittingafeeblelittlelandlikePortugaltoretainitsholduponaregionsoextensiveandvaluableasBrazil。
Theeventsof1820inPortugalhastenedthemovementtowardindependence。FiredbythesuccessoftheirSpanishcomrades，thePortugueseliberalsforthwithroseinrevolt，demandedtheestablishmentofalimitedmonarchy，andinsistedthattheKingreturntohispeople。Insimilarfashion，also，theydrewupaconstitutionwhichprovidedfortherepresentationofBrazilbydeputiesinafutureCortes。Beyondthistheywouldconcedenospecialprivilegestothecolony。Indeedtheirideaseemstohavebeenthat，withtheKingoncemoreinLisbon，theirownlibertieswouldbesecureandthoseofBrazilwouldbereducedtowhatwerebefittingameredependency。Yieldingtotheinevitable，theKingdecidedtoreturntoPortugal，leavingtheyoungCrownPrincetoactasRegentinthecolony。Acriticalmomentforthelittlecountryanditsbigdominionoverseahadindubitablyarrived。
Johnunderstoodthetrendofthetimes，forontheeveofhisdeparturehesaidtohisson：\"Pedro，ifBrazilistoseparateitselffromPortugal，asseemslikely，youtakethecrownyourselfbeforeanyoneelsegetsit！\"
Pedrowasliberalinsentiment，popularamongtheBrazilians，andwell—disposedtowardtheaspirationsofthecountryforalargermeasureoffreedom，andyetnotblindtotheinterestsofthedynastyofBraganza。HereadilylistenedtotheurgentpleasoftheleadersoftheseparatistpartyagainstobeyingtherepressivemandaesoftheCortes。LawswhichabolishedthecentralgovernmentofthecolonyandmadethevariousprovincesindividuallysubjecttoPortugalhedeclinedtonotice。WithequalpromptnessherefusedtoheedanorderbiddinghimreturntoPortugalimmediately。ToadelegationofprominentBrazilianshesaidemphatically：\"Forthegoodofallandthegeneralwelfareofthenation，Ishallstay。\"Morethanthat，inMay，1822，heacceptedfromthemunicipalityofRiodeJaneirothetitleof\"PerpetualandConstitutionalDefenderofBrazil，\"andinaseriesofproclamationsurgedthepeopleofthecountrytobeginthegreatworkofemancipationbyforciblyresisting，ifneedful，anyattemptatcoercion。
Pedronowbelievedthemomenthadcometotakethefinalstep。
WhileonajourneythroughtheprovinceofSaoPaulo，hewasovertakenonthe7thofSeptember，nearalittlestreamcalledtheYpiranga，bymessengerswithdispatchesfromPortugal。
FindingthattheCorteshadannulledhisactsanddeclaredhisministersguiltyoftreason，PedroforthwithproclaimedBrazilanindependentstate。The\"cryofYpiranga\"wasechoedwithtremendousenthusiasmthroughoutthecountry。WhenPedroappearedinthetheateratRiodeJaneiro，afewdayslater，wearingonhisarmaribbononwhichwereinscribedthewords\"IndependenceorDeath，\"hewasgivenatumultuousovation。OnthefirstdayofDecembertheyouthfulmonarchassumedthetitleofEmperor，andBrazilthereupontookitsplaceamongthenationsofAmerica。
CHAPTERIV。PLOUGHINGTHESEA
WhentheLaPlataCongressatTucumantookthedecisiveactionthatseveredthebondwithSpain，itutteredaprophecyforallSpanishAmerica。Toquoteitslanguage：\"Vastandfertileregions，climatesbenignandvaried，abundantmeansofsubsistence，treasuresofgoldandsilver……andfineproductionsofeverysortwillattracttoourcontinentinnumerablethousandsofimmigrants，towhomweshallopenasafeplaceofrefugeandextendabeneficentprotection。\"Morehopefulstillwerethewordsofaspokesmanforanotherindependentcountry：\"United，neithertheempireoftheAssyrians，theMedesorthePersians，theMacedonianortheRomanEmpire，caneverbecomparedwiththiscolossalrepublic。\"
VerydifferentwasthevisionofBolivar。WhilearefugeeinJamaicahewrote：\"Wearealittlehumanspecies;wepossessaworldapart……newinalmostalltheartsandsciences，andyetold，afterafashion，intheusesofcivilsociety……
NeitherIndiansnorEuropeans，weareaspeciesthatliesmidway……Isitconceivablethatapeoplerecentlyfreedofitschainscanlaunchitselfintothesphereoflibertywithoutshatteringitswings，likeIcarus，andplungingintotheabyss？
Suchaprodigyisinconceivable，neverbeheld。\"Towardthecloseofhiscareerhedeclared：\"Themajorityaremestizos，mulattoes，Indians，andnegroes。Anignorantpeopleisabluntinstrumentforitsowndestruction。Toitlibertymeanslicense，patriotismmeansdisloyalty，andjusticemeansvengeance。\"\"Independence，\"
heexclaimed，\"istheonlygoodwehaveachieved，atthecostofeverythingelse。\"
Whethertheaboundingconfidenceoftheprophecyortheanxiousdoubtofthevisionwouldcometrue，onlythefuturecouldtell。
In1822，atallevents，optimismwasthewatchwordandthetotalexclusionofSpainfromSouthAmericathegoalofBolivarandhislieutenants，astheystartedsouthwardtocompletetheworkofemancipationwhichhadbeenbegunbySanMartin。
ThepatriotsofPeru，indeed，hadfallenintostraitssodesperatethatanappealtotheLiberatorofferedtheonlyhopeofsalvation。Whiletheroyalistsundertheirableandvigilantleader，JoseCanterac，continuedtostrengthentheirgraspupontheinteriorofthecountryandtoupholdthepoweroftheviceroy，thePresidentchosenbytheCongresshadbeendrivenbytheenemyfromLima。AnumberofthelegislatorsinwraththereupondeclaredthePresidentdeposed。Nottobeoutdone，thatfunctionaryonhispartdeclaredtheCongressdissolved。Themalcontentsimmediatelyproceededtoelectanewchiefmagistrate，thusbringingtwoPresidentsintothefieldandinauguratingaspectacledestinedtobecomealltoocommoninthesubsequentannalsofSpanishAmerica。
WhenBolivararrivedatCallao，theseaportofLima，inSeptember，1823，heactedwithpromptvigor。HeexpelledonePresident，convertedtheotherintoapassiveinstrumentofhiswill，declinedtopromulgateaconstitutionthattheCongresshadprepared，and，afterobtainingfromthatbodyanappointmenttosupremecommand，dissolvedtheCongresswithoutfurtherado。
Unfortunatelynoneoftheseradicalmeasureshadanyperceptibleeffectuponthemilitarysituation。ThoughBolivargatheredtogetheranarmymadeupofColombians，Peruvians，andremnantsofSanMartin’sforce，manymonthselapsedbeforehecouldventureuponaseriouscampaign。TheneventsinSpainplayedintohishands。ThereactionthathadfollowedtherestorationofFerdinandVIItoabsolutepowercrossedtheoceanandsplittheroyalistsintoopposingfactions。Quicktoseizethechancethusafforded，BolivarmarchedovertheAndestotheplainofJunin。
There，onAugust6，1824，herepelledanonslaughtbyCanteracanddrovethatleaderbackinheadlongflight。Believing，however，thatthepositionheheldwastooperiloustoriskanoffensive，heentrustedthemilitarycommandtoSucreandreturnedtoheadquarters。
Theroyalistshadnowcometorealizethatonlyasupremeeffortcouldsavethem。TheymustoverwhelmSucrebeforereinforcementscouldreachhim，andtothisendanarmyofupwardsoftenthousandwasassembled。Onthe9thofDecemberitencounteredSucreandhissixthousandsoldiersinthevalleyofAyacucho，or\"CornerofDeath，\"wherethepatriotgeneralhadentrenchedhisarmywithadmirableskill。Theresultwasatotaldefeatfortheroyalists——theWaterlooofSpaininSouthAmerica。Thebattlethuswonbyraggedandhungrysoldiers——whosecountersignthenightbeforehadbeen\"breadandcheese\"——threwofftheyokeofthemothercountryforever。TheviceroyfellwoundedintotheirhandsandCanteracsurrendered。Onreceiptofthegloriousnews，thepeopleofLimagreetedBolivarwithwildenthusiasm。A
Congressprolongedhisdictatorshipamidadulationsthatborderedonthegrotesque。
EastwardofPeruinthevastmountainousregionofCharcas，ontheveryheightsofSouthAmerica，theroyalistsstillfoundarefuge。InJanuary，1825，apatriotgeneralatthetownofLaPazundertookonhisownresponsibilitytodeclaretheentireprovinceindependent，alikeofSpain，Peru，andtheUnitedProvincesofLaPlata。Thisactionwastooprecipitous，nottosaypresumptuous，tosuitBolivarandSucre。Thebettertocontrolthesituation，theformerwentuptoLaPazandthelattertoChuquisaca，thecapital，whereaCongresswastoassembleforthepurposeofimpartingamoreorderlyturntoaffairs。Underthedirectionofthe\"MarshalofAyacucho，\"asSucrewasnowcalled，theCongressissuedonthe6thofAugustaformaldeclarationofindependence。InhonoroftheLiberatoritchristenedthenewrepublic\"Bolivar\"——laterLatinizedinto\"Bolivia\"——andconferreduponhimthepresidencysolongashemightchoosetoremain。InNovember，1896，anewCongresswhichhadbeensummonedtodraftaconstitutionaccepted，withslightmodifications，aninstrumentthattheLiberatorhimselfhadprepared。Thatbodyalsorenamedthecapital\"Sucre\"andchosetheheroofAyacuchoasPresidentoftherepublic。
Now，theLiberatorthought，wastheopportunemomenttoimposeuponhisterritorialnamesakeaconstitutionembodyinghisideasofastablegovernmentwhichwouldgiveSpanishAmericanseventuallythepoliticalexperiencetheyneeded。ProvidingforanautocracyrepresentedbyalifePresident，itranthegamutofaristocracyanddemocracy，allthewayfrom\"censors\"forlife，whoweretowatchoverthedueenforcementofthelaws，downtosenatorsand\"tribunes\"chosenbyelectors，whointurnweretobenamedbyaselectcitizenry。Wheneveractuallypresentintheterritoryoftherepublic，theLiberatorwastoenjoysupremecommand，incasehewishedtoexerciseit。
In1826SimonBolivarstoodatthezenithofhisgloryandpower。
NoadherentsoftheSpanishregimewereleftinSouthAmericatomenacethefreedomofitsindependentstates。InJanuaryaresistancekeptupfornineyearsbyahandfulofroyalistslodgedontheremoteislandofChiloe，offthesoutherncoastofChile，hadbeenbroken，andthegarrisonatthefortressofCallaohadlaiddownitsarmsafteravaliantstruggle。AmongSpanishAmericansnoonewascomparabletothemarvelousmanwhohadfoundedthreegreatrepublicsstretchingfromtheCaribbeanSeatotheTropicofCapricorn。Hailedasthe\"Liberator\"andthe\"TerrorofDespots，\"hewasalsoacclaimedbythepeopleasthe\"Redeemer，theFirst—BornSonoftheNewWorld！\"Nationaldestinieswerecommittedtohischarge，andequestrianstatueswereerectedinhishonor。InthepopularimaginationhewasrankedwithNapoleonasapeerlessconqueror，andwithWashingtonasthefatherofhiscountry。ThatmegalomaniashouldhaveseizedthemindoftheLiberatorundercircumstancesliketheseisnotstrange。
Everazealousadvocateoflargestates，Bolivarwasanequallyardentpartisanofconfederation。Aspresidentofthreerepublics——ofColombiaactually，andofitssatellites，PeruandBolivia，throughhislieutenants——hecouldaffordnowtocarryouttheplanthathehadlongsincecherishedofassemblingatthetownofPanama，onColombiansoil，an\"augustcongress\"
representativeoftheindependentcountriesofAmerica。Here，ontheisthmuscreatedbynaturetojointhecontinents，thenationscreatedbymenshouldforegatherandproclaimfraternalaccord。
PresentingtotheautocraticgovernmentsofEuropeasolidfrontofresistancetotheirpretensionsaswellasavisiblesymbolofunityinsentiment，suchaCongressbymeetingperiodicallywouldalsopromotefriendshipamongtherepublicsofthewesternhemisphereandsupplyaconvenientmeansofsettlingtheirdisputes。
AtthistimetheUnitedStateswasregardedbyitssisterrepublicswithalltheaffectionwhichgratitudeforservicesrenderedtothecauseofemancipationcouldevoke。Wasitnotitselfarepublic，itspeopleademocracy，itsdevelopmentastounding，anditsfutureradiantwithhope？ThepronouncementofPresidentMonroe，in1823，protestingagainstinterferenceonthepartofEuropeanpowerswiththelibertiesofindependentAmerica，affordedtheclearestpossibleproofthatthegreatnorthernrepublicwasanaturalprotector，guide，andfriendwhoseadviceandcooperationoughttobeinvoked。TheUnitedStateswasaccordinglyaskedtotakepartintheassembly——nottoconcertmilitarymeasures，butsimplytojoinitsfellowstothesouthwardinasolemnproclamationoftheMonroeDoctrinebyAmericaatlargeandtodiscussmeansofsuppressingtheslavetrade。
TheCongressthatmetatPanama，inJune，1826，affordedscantencouragementtoBolivar’sroseatehopeofinterAmericansolidarity。Whetherbecauseofthedifficultiesoftravel，orbecauseofinternaldissensions，orbecauseofthesuspicionthatthemegalomaniaoftheLiberatorhadawakenedinSpanishAmerica，onlythefourcontinentalcountriesnearesttheisthmus——Mexico，CentralAmerica，Colombia，andPeru——wererepresented。Thedelegates，nevertheless，signedacompactof\"perpetualunion，league，andconfederation，\"providedformutualassistancetoberenderedbytheseveralnationsintimeofwar，andarrangedtohavetheAreopagusoftheAmericastransferredtoMexico。NoneoftheactsofthisCongresswasratifiedbytherepublicsconcerned，excepttheagreementforunion，whichwasadoptedbyColombia。
DishearteningtoBolivarasthisspectaclewas，itprovedmerelythefirstofaseriesofcalamitieswhichweretoovershadowthelateryearsoftheLiberator。Hisgrandiosepoliticalstructurebegantocrumble，foritwasbuiltontheshiftingsandsofaficklepopularity。Themoreheurgedageneralacceptanceoftheprinciplesofhisautocraticconstitution，thesurerwerehisfollowersthathecovetedroyalhonors。InDecemberheimposedhisinstrumentuponPeru。ThenhelearnedthatameetinginVenezuela，presidedoverbyPaez，haddeclareditselfinfavorofseparationfromColombia。HardlyhadheleftPerutocheckthismovementwhenanuprisingatLimadeposedhisrepresentativeandledtothesummonsofaCongresswhich，inJune，1827，restoredtheformerconstitutionandchoseanewPresident。InQuito，also，thegovernmentoftheunstabledictatorwasoverthrown。
Alarmedbysymptomsofdisaffectionwhichalsoappearedinthewesternpartoftherepublic，BolivarhurriedtoBogota。Thereinthehopeofremovingthegrowingantagonism，heofferedhis\"irrevocable\"resignation，ashehaddoneonmorethanoneoccasionbefore。Thoughthemalcontentsdeclinedtoaccepthiswithdrawalfromoffice，theyinsisteduponhiscallingaconstitutionalconvention。MeetingatOcana，inApril，1828，thatbodyproceededtoabolishthelifetenureofthepresidency，tolimitthepowersoftheexecutive，andtoincreasethoseofthelegislature。Bolivarmanagedtoquelltheoppositionindictatorialfashion;buthisprestigehadbythistimefallensolowthatanattemptwasmadetoassassinatehim。Theseveritywithwhichhepunishedtheconspiratorsservedonlytodiminishstillmorethepopularconfidencewhichhehadonceenjoyed。EveninBoliviahisstarofdestinyhadset。AnoutbreakofColombiantroopsatthecapitalforcedthefaithfulSucretoresignandleavethecountry。Theconstitutionwasthenmodifiedtomeetthedemandforalessautocraticgovernment，andanewchiefmagistratewasinstalled。
DesperatelytheLiberatorstrovetowardofftheimpendingcollapse。TkoughherecoveredpossessionofthedivisionofQuito，ayearofwarfarefailedtowinbackPeru，andhewascompelledtorenounceallpretenseofgoverningit。Feebleinbodyanddistractedinmind，hecondemnedbitterlythemachinationsofhisenemies。\"ThereisnogoodfaithinColombia，\"heexclaimed，\"neitheramongmennoramongnations。
Treatiesarepaper;constitutions，books;elections，combats;
liberty，anarchy，andlifeitselfatorment。\"
Butthehardestblowwasyettofall。LateinDecember，1829，anassemblyatCaracasdeclaredVenezuelaaseparatestate。Thegreatrepublicwasrentintwain，andevenwhatwasleftsoonsplitapart。InMay，1830，camethefinalcrash。TheCongressatBogotadraftedaconstitution，providingforaseparaterepublictobeartheoldSpanishnameof\"NewGranada，\"accepteddefinitelytheresignationofBolivar，andgrantedhimapension。
Venezuela，hisnativeland，setupacongressofitsownanddemandedthathebeexiled。ThedivisionofQuitodeclareditselfindependent，underthenameofthe\"RepublicoftheEquator\"
（Ecuador）。EverywheretheartificialhandiworkoftheLiberatorlayinruins。\"Americaisungovernable。Thosewhohaveservedintherevolutionhaveploughedthesea，\"washisdespairingcry。
Strickentodeath，thefallenheroretiredtoanestatenearSantaMarta。Here，likehisfamousrival，SanMartin，inFrance，hefoundhospitalityatthehandsofaSpaniard。OnDecember17，1830，theLiberatorgaveuphistroubledsoul。
WhileBolivar’sgreatrepublicwasfallingapart，theUnitedProvincesofLaPlatahadlostpracticallyallsemblanceofcohesion。Sobroadweretheirnotionsoflibertythattheseveralprovincesmaintainedasubstantialindependenceofoneanother，whilewithineachprovincethecaudillos，orpartisanchieftains，foughtamongthemselves。
BuenosAiresalonemanagedtopreserveameasureofstability。
ThiscomparativepeacewasduetothefinancialandcommercialmeasuresdevisedbyBernardinoRivadavia，oneofthemostcapablestatesmenofthetime，andtotheenergeticmannerinwhichdisorderwassuppressedbyJuanManueldeRosas，commanderofthegaucho，orcowboy，militia。Thanksalsototheformerleader，theprovinceswereinducedin1826tojoininframingaconstitutionofaunitarycharacter，whichvestedintheadministrationatBuenosAiresthepowerofappointingthelocalgovernorsandofcontrollingforeignaffairs。Thenameofthecountrywasatthesametimechangedtothatofthe\"ArgentineConfederation\"（c）—aLatinrenderingof\"LaPlata。\"
NosoonerhadRivadaviaassumedthepresidencyundertheneworderofthingsthandissensionathomeandwarfareabroadthreatenedtodestroyallthathehadaccomplished。Ignoringthetermsoftheconstitution，theprovinceshadalreadybeguntorejectthesupremacyofBuenosAires，whentheoutbreakofastrugglewithBrazilforcedthecontendingpartiesforawhiletouniteinthefaceofthecommonenemy。Asbefore，theobjectofinternationaldisputewastheregionoftheBandaOriental。TheruleofBrazilhadnotbeenoppressive，butthepeopleofitsCisplatineProvince，attachedbylanguageandsympathytotheirwesternneighbors，longedneverthelesstobefreeofforeigncontrol。InApril，1825，abandofthirty—threerefugeesarrivedfromBuenosAiresandstartedarevolutionwhichspreadthroughoutthecountry。Organizingaprovisionalgovernment，theinsurgentsproclaimedindependenceofBrazilandincorporationwiththeUnitedProvincesofLaPlata。AssoonastheauthoritiesatBuenosAireshadapprovedthisaction，warwasinevitable。
ThoughtheBraziliansweredecisivelybeatenattheBattleofItuzaingo，onFebruary20，1827，thestrugglelasteduntilAugust28，1828，whenmediationbyGreatBritainledtotheconclusionofatreatyatRiodeJaneiro，bywhichbothBrazilandtheArgentineConfederationrecognizedtheabsoluteindependenceofthedisputedprovinceastherepublicofUruguay。
InsteadofquietingthediscordthatprevailedamongtheArgentinos，thesevictoriesonlyfomentedtrouble。ThefederalistshadoustedRivadaviaanddiscardedtheconstitution，butthefederalideaforwhichtheystoodhadseveralmeanings。
ToaninhabitantofBuenosAiresfederalismmeantdominationbythecapital，notonlyovertheprovinceofthesamenamebutovertheotherprovinces;whereas，tothepeopleoftheprovinces，andeventomanyoffederalistfaithintheprovinceofBuenosAiresitself，thetermstoodfortheideaofalooseconfederationinwhicheachprovincialgovernororchieftainshouldbepracticallysupremeinhisowndistrict，solongashecouldmaintainhimself。TheUnitarieswereopponentsofboth，exceptinsofarastheirinsistenceuponacentralizedformofgovernmentforthenationwouldnecessarilyleadtothelocationofthatgovernmentatBuenosAires。ThispeculiardualcontestbetweenthetownandtheprovinceofBuenosAires，andoftheotherprovincesagainsteitherorboth，persistedforthenextsixtyyears。In1829，however，aprolongedlullsetin，whenRosas，thegaucholeader，havingwonincompanywithothercaudillosadecisivetriumphovertheUnitaries，enteredthecapitalandtooksupremecommand。
InChilethecourseofeventshadassumedquiteadifferentaspect。Here，in1818，aspeciesofconstitutionhadbeenadoptedbypopularvoteinamannerthatappearedtoshowremarkableunanimity，forthebooksinwhichthe\"ayes\"and\"noes\"weretoberecordedcontainednoentriesinthenegative！WhattherecordsreallyproveisthatO’Higgins，theSupremeDirector，enjoyedtheconfidenceoftherulingclass。Inexerciseoftheautocraticpowerentrustedtohim，henowproceededtointroduceavarietyofadministrativereformsofsignaladvantagetothemoralandmaterialwelfareofthecountry。Butasthedangerofconquestfromanyquarterlessened，thedemandforamoredemocraticorganizationgrewlouder，untilin1822itbecamesopersistentthatO’Higginscalledaconventiontodraftanewfundamentallaw。Butitsprovisionssuitedneitherhimselfnorhisopponents。Thereupon，realizingthathisviewsofthepoliticalcapacityofthepeopleresembledthoseofBolivarandwerenolongerapplicable，andthathisreformshadarousedtoomuchhostility，theSupremeDirectorresignedhispostandretiredtoPeru。Thusanotherheroofemancipationhadmettheingratitudeforwhichrepublicsarenotorious。
PoliticalconvulsionsinthecountryfollowedtheabdicationofO’Higgins。NotonlyhadthespiritofthestrifebetweenUnitariesandFederalistsbeencommunicatedtoChilefromtheneighboringrepublictotheeastward，buttwootherpartiesorfactions，dividedonstilldifferentlines，hadarisen。TheseweretheConservativeandtheLiberal，orBigwigs（pelucones）andGreenhorns（pipiolos），astheadherentsoftheonederisivelydubbedthepartisansoftheother。Althoughintheupsanddownsofthestruggletwoconstitutionswereadopted，neithersufficedtoquiettheagitation。Notuntil1830，whentheLiberalssustainedanutterdefeatonthefieldofbattle，didthecountryenteruponaperiodofquietprogressalongconservativelines。
>Fromthattimeonwarditpresentedasurprisingcontrasttoitsfellowrepublics，whichwerebesetwithafflictions。
Fartothenorthward，theEmpireofMexicosetupbyIturbidein1822wasdoomedtoaspeedyfall。\"Emperorbydivineprovidence，\"
thatambitiousadventurerinscribedonhiscoins，buthiscountrymenknewthatthebayonetsofhissoldiersweretheactualmainstayofhispretentioustitle。Neitherhisearliercareernorthesizeofhisfollowingwassufficientlyimpressivetoassurehimpopularsupportifthemilitarypropgaveway。Hislavishexpenditures，furthermore，andhisarbitraryreplacementoftheCongressbyadocilebodywhichwouldauthorizeforcedloansathiscommand，steadilyunderminedhisposition。ApartfromthefaultsofIturbidehimself，thepopularsentimentofacountryborderingimmediatelyupontheUnitedStatescouldnotfailtobecoloredbytheideasandinstitutionsofitsgreatneighbor。So，too，theexampleofwhathadbeenaccomplished，informatleast，bytheirkinsmenelsewhereinAmericawasboundtowieldapotentinfluenceonthemindsoftheMexicans。Asaresult，theirdesireforarepublicgrewstrongerfromdaytoday。
Iturbide，infact，hadnotenjoyedhisexaltedrankfivemonthswhenAntonioLopezdeSantaAnna，ayoungofficerdestinedlatertobecomeaconspicuousfigureinMexicanhistory，startedarevolttoreplacethe\"Empire\"byarepublic。Thoughhefailedinhisobject，twoofIturbide’sgeneralsjoinedtheinsurgentsindemandingarestorationoftheCongress——anactwhich，asthehapless\"Emperor\"perceived，wouldamounttohisdethronement。
Realizinghisimpotence，IturbidesummonedtheCongressandannouncedhisabdication。Butinsteadofrecognizingthisprocedure，thatbodydeclaredhisaccessionitselfnullandvoid;
itagreed，however，togranthimapensionifhewouldleavethecountryandresideinItaly。WiththisdispositionofhispersonIturbidecomplied;buthesoonweariedofexileandpersuadedhimselfthathewouldnotlacksupportersifhetriedtoregainhisformercontrolinMexico。ThisventurehedecidedtomakeincompleteignoranceofadecreeorderinghissummaryexecutionifhedaredtosetfootagainonMexicansoil。HehadhardlylandedinJuly，1824，whenhewasseizedandshot。
SinceaconstituentassemblyhaddeclareditselfinfavorofestablishingafederalformofrepublicpatternedafterthatoftheUnitedStates，thepromulgationofaconstitutionfollowedonOctober4，1824，andGuadalupeVictoria，oneoftheleadersintherevoltagainstIturbide，waschosenPresidentoftheUnitedMexicanStates。Thoughconsiderableunrestprevailedtowardthecloseofhisterm，thenewPresidentmanagedtoretainhisofficefortheallottedfouryears。Inmostrespects，however，theneworderofthingsopenedauspiciously。InNovember，1825，thesurrenderofthefortressofSanJuandeUlua，intheharborofVeraCruz，banishedthelastremnantofSpanishpower，andtwoyearslaterthesuppressionofplotsfortherestorationofFerdinandVII，coupledwiththeexpulsionofalargenumberofSpaniards，helpedtorestorecalm。TherewerethoseevenwhodaredtohopethatthefederalsystemwouldoperateassmoothlyinMexicoasithaddoneintheUnitedStates。
Butthepoliticalorganizationofacountrysodifferentfromitsnorthernneighborinpopulation，traditions，andpractices，couldnotrestmerelyonabasisofimitation，evenmoreorlessmodified。Theartificialityofthefabricbecameapparentenoughassoonasambitiousindividualsandgroupsofmalcontentsconcertedmeasurestomolditintoalikenessofreality。Twomainpoliticalfactionssoonappeared。FortheformtheyassumedBritishandAmericaninfluenceswereresponsible。AdoptingakindofMasonicorganization，theConservativesandCentralistscalledthemselvesEscoceses（Scottish—RiteMen），whereastheRadicalsandFederaliststookthenameofYorkinos（York—RiteMen）。
Whatevertheirrespectiveslogansandprofessionsofpoliticalfaith，theywerelittlemorethanpersonalfollowersofrivalgeneralsorpoliticianswhoyearnedtooccupythepresidentialchair。
UponthedownfallofIturbide，themalcontentsinCentralAmericabestirredthemselvestothrowofftheMexicanyoke。OnJuly1，1823，aCongressdeclaredtheregionanindependentrepublicunderthenameofthe\"UnitedProvincesofCentralAmerica。\"InNovemberofthenextyear，followingtheprecedentestablishedinMexico，andobedientalsotolocaldemand，thenewrepublicissuedaconstitution，inaccordancewithwhichthefivelittledivisionsofGuatemala，Honduras，Salvador，Nicaragua，andCostaRicaweretobecomestatesofafederalunion，eachhavingtheprivilegeofchoosingitsownlocalauthorities。ImmediatelyFederalistsandCentralists，RadicalsandConservatives，allwished，itwouldseem，toimposetheirparticularviewpointupontheirfellows。ThesituationwasnotunlikethatintheArgentineConfederation。TheeffortsofGuatemala——theprovinceinwhichpowerhadbeenconcentratedunderthecolonialregime——toassertsupremacyoveritsfellowstates，andtheirrefusaltorespecteitherthefederalbondoroneanother’srightsmadecivilwarinevitable。ThestrugglewhichbrokeoutamongGuatemala，Salvador，andHonduras，lasteduntil1829，whenFranciscoMorazan，attheheadofthe\"AlliedArmy，UpholderoftheLaw，\"
enteredthecapitaloftherepublicandassumeddictatorialpower。
OfalltheHispanicnations，however，Brazilwaseasilythemoststable。Heretheleaders，whileclingingtoindependence，strovetoavoiddangerousinnovationsingovernment。Ratherthancreateapoliticalsystemforwhichthecountrywasnotprepared，theyestablishedaconstitutionalmonarchy。ButBrazilitselfwastoovastanditsinteriortoodifficultofaccesstoallowittobecomeallatonceaunit，eitherinorganizationorinspirit。
Theideaofnationalsolidarityhadasyetmadescantprogress。
Theoldrivalrywhichexistedbetweentheprovincesofthenorth，dominatedbyBahiaorPernambuco，andthoseofthesouth，controlledbyRiodeJaneiroorSaoPaulo，stillmadeitselffelt。WhattheEmpireamountedto，therefore，wasanagglomerationofprovinces，heldtogetherbythepersonalprestigeofayoungmonarch。
SincethemothercountrystillheldpartsofnorthernBrazil，theEmperorentrustedtheenergeticCochrane，whohadperformedsuchvaliantserviceforChileandPeru，withthetaskofexpellingtheforeignsoldiery。Whenthishadbeenaccomplishedandarepublicanoutbreakinthesameregionhadbeensuppressed，themoredifficulttaskofsatisfyingallpartiesbyaconstitutionhadtobeundertaken。Therewerepartisansofmonarchyandadvocatesofrepublicanism，menofconservativeandofliberalsympathies;disagreements，also，betweentheBraziliansandthenativePortugueseresidentswerefrequent。SofaraspossiblePedrodesiredtomeetpopulardesires，andyetwithoutimposingtoomanylimitationsonthemonarchyitself。Butintheassemblycalledtodrafttheconstitutiontheliberalmembersmadeadeterminedefforttointroducerepublicanforms。Pedrothereupondissolvedthatbodyandin1826promulgatedaconstitutionofhisown。
ThepopularityoftheEmperorthereaftersoonbegantowane，partlybecauseofthescandalouscharacterofhisprivatelife，andpartlybecausehedeclinedtoobserveconstitutionalrestrictionsandchosehisministersatwill。HisinsistentwarinPortugaltoupholdtheclaimsofhisdaughtertothethronebetrayed，orseemedtobetray，dynasticambitions。HisinabilitytoholdUruguayasaBrazilianprovince，andhiscontinuedretentionofforeignsoldierswhohadbeenemployedinthestrugglewiththeArgentineConfederation，fortheapparentpurposeofquellingpossibleinsurrectionsinthefuture，bredmuchdiscontent。Soalsodidtherestraintshelaiduponthepress，whichhadbeeninfectedbytheliberalmovementsinneighboringrepublics。Whenhefailedtosubduetheseoutbreaks，hisrulebecameallthemorediscredited。Thereupon，menacedbyadangerousuprisingatRiodeJaneiroin1831，heabdicatedthethroneinfavorofhisson，Pedro，thenfiveyearsofage，andsetsailforPortugal。
UndertheinfluenceofGreatBritainthesmallEuropeanmothercountryhadin1825recognizedtheindependenceofitsbigtransatlanticdominion;butitwasnotuntil1836thattheCortesofSpainauthorizedtheCrowntoenteruponnegotiationslookingtothesameactioninregardtotheelevenrepublicswhichhadsprungoutofitscolonialdomain。Eventhenmanyyearselapsedbeforethemothercountryacknowledgedtheindependenceofthemall。
CHAPTERV。THEAGEOFTHEDICTATORS
IndependencewithoutlibertyandstatehoodwithoutrespectforlawarephraseswhichsumupthesituationinSpanishAmericaafterthefailureofBolivar’s\"greatdesign。\"Theoutcomewasacollectionofcruderepublics，rackedbyinternaldissensionandtornbymutualjealousy——patriasbobas，or\"foolishfatherlands，\"
asoneoftheirownwritershastermedthem。
NowthatthebondofunityoncesuppliedbySpainhadbeenbroken，theentireregionwhichhadbeenitscontinentaldomaininAmericadissolvedawhileintoitselements。TheSpanishlanguage，thetraditionsandcustomsofthedominantclass，anda\"republican\"formofgovernment，werepracticallythesoletieswhichremained。Laws，tobesure，hadbeenenacted，providingfortheimmediateorgradualabolitionofnegroslaveryandforanimprovementinthestatusoftheIndianandhalf—caste;butthebulkoftheinhabitants，asincolonialtimes，remainedoutsideofthebodypoliticandsocial。Thoughtheso—called\"constitutions\"mightconferuponthecoloredinhabitantsalltheprivilegesandimmunitiesofcitizensiftheycouldreadandwrite，andevenachancetoholdofficeiftheycouldshowpossessionofasufficientincomeorofaprofessionaltitleofsomesort，theirusualinabilitytodoeithermadetheirprivilegesillusory。Theironlyshareinpublicconcernslayinperformingmilitaryserviceatthebehestoftheirsuperiors。
Evenwherethelanguageoftheconstitutionsdidnotexcludethecoloredinhabitantsdirectlyorindirectly，practicalauthoritywasexercisedbydictatorswhoplayedtheautocrat，orby\"liberators\"whoaimedattheenjoymentofthatfunctionthemselves。
Notallthedictators，however，wereselfishtyrants，noralltheliberatorsmerepretenders。Disturbedconditionsbredbytwentyyearsofwarfare，antiquemethodsofindustry，abackwardcommerce，inadequatemeansofcommunication，andapopulationignorant，superstitious，andscant，madeastrongrulermoreorlessindispensable。Whateverhisofficialdesignation，thedictatorwasthelogicalsuccessoroftheSpanishviceroyorcaptaingeneral，butwithoutthesenseofresponsibilityorthelegalrestraintofeither。ThesecircumstancesaccountforthatcuriouspoliticalphaseinthedevelopmentoftheSpanishAmericannations——thepresidentialdespotism。
Ontheotherhand，themenwhodenouncedoppression，unscrupulousness，andvenality，andwhoinrhetoricalpronunciamentosurgedthe\"people\"tooverthrowthedictators，wereoftenactuatedbymotivesofpatriotism，eventhoughtheybasedtheirdeclarationsonassumptionsandassertions，ratherthanonprinciplesandfacts。Notinfrequentlyaliberatorofthissortbecame\"provisionalpresident\"untilhehimself，orsomepersonofhischoice，couldbeelected\"constitutionalpresident\"——twootherinstitutionsmoreorlesspeculiartoSpanishAmerica。
Inanatmosphereofpoliticaltheorizingmingledwithambitionforpersonaladvancement，bothleadersandfollowerswereprofesseddevoteesofconstitutions。Nopeople，itwasthought，couldmaintainarealrepublicandbeatruedemocracyiftheydidnotpossessawrittenconstitution。Thelongerthiswas，themorepreciseitsdefinitionofpowersandliberties，themoreauthentictherepublicandthemoregenuinethedemocracywasthoughttobe。Insomecountriesthenotionwascarriedstillfartherbyaninsistenceuponfrequentchangesinthefundamentallaworintheactualformofgovernment，notsomuchtomeetimperativeneedsastosatisfyazestforexperimentationortosuitthewhimsofmercurialtemperaments。Thecongresses，constituentassemblies，andthelike，whichdrewtheseinstruments，weresupposedtobefaithfulreproductionsofsimilarbodiesabroadandtorepresentthepopularwill。Infact，however，theyweresubstantiallycolonialcabildos，enlargedintothesemblanceofalegislature，intentuponlocalorpersonalconcerns，andlackinganynationalconsciousness。Inanycasethememberswereapttobecreaturesofarepublicandespotorelsedelegatesofpoliticiansorpettyfactions。
Assumingthattheleadershadafairlyclearconceptionofwhattheywanted，evenifthemassoftheiradherentsdidnot，itispossibletoalinethefactionsorpartiessomewhatasfollows：ontheonehand，theunitary，themilitary，theclerical，theconservative，andthemoderate;ontheother，thefederalist，thecivilian，thelay，theliberal，andtheradical。InterspersedamongthemweretheadvocatesofapresidentialorcongressionalsystemlikethatoftheUnitedStates，theupholdersofaparliamentaryregimelikethatofEuropeannations，andthesupportersofmethodsofgovernmentofamoreexperimentalkind。
Broadlyspeaking，thelineofcleavagewasmadebyopinions，concerningtheformofgovernmentandbyconvictionsregardingtherelationsofChurchandState。Theseopinionsweremainlyaproductofrevolutionaryexperience;theseconvictions，ontheotherhand，wereabequestfromcolonialtimes。
TheUnitarieswishedtohaveasystemofgovernmentmodeleduponthatofFrance。Theywantedthevariousprovincesmadeintoadministrativedistrictsoverwhichthenationalauthorityshouldexercisefullsway。Theirdirectopponents，theFederalists，resembledtosomeextenttheAntifederalistsratherthanthepartybearingtheformertitleintheearlierhistoryoftheUnitedStates;butevenhereanexactanalogyfails。Theydidnotseektohavetheprovincesenjoylocalself—governmentortohaveperpetuatedthetraditionsofasortofmunicipalhomerulehandeddownfromthecolonialcabildos，somuchastosecuretherecognitionofanumberofisolatedvillagesorsmalltownsassovereignstates——whichmeantturningthemoverasfiefstotheirlocalchieftains。Federalism，therefore，wastheSpanishAmericanexpressionforafeudalismupheldbymilitarylordletsandtheirretainers。
Amongthemeasuresofreformintroducedbyonerepublicoranotherduringtherevolutionaryperiod，abolitionoftheInquisitionhadbeenoneoftheforemost;otherwisecomparativelylittlewasdonetocurbtheinfluenceoftheChurch。IndeedtheearlierconstitutionsregularlycontainedarticlesdeclaringRomanCatholicismthesolelegalfaithaswellasthereligionofthestate，andsafeguardinginotherrespectsitsprestigeinthecommunity。Herewasaninstitution，wealthy，proud，andinfluential，whichdeclinedtoyielditsancientprerogativesandprivilegesandtothatendrelieduponthesupportofclericalsandconservativeswhodislikedinnovationsofademocraticsortandviewedaskancetheentryofimmigrantsprofessinganalienfaith。OpposedtotheChurchstoodgovernmentsvergingonbankruptcy，desirousofexercisingsupremecontrol，anddominatedbyindividualseagertoputtheoriesofdemocracyintopracticeandtothrowopenthedoorsoftherepublicfreelytonewcomersfromotherlands。IntheopinionoftheseradicalstheChurchoughttobedeprivedbothofitspropertyandofitsmonopolyofeducation。Theoneshouldbeturnedovertothenation，towhichitproperlybelonged，andshouldbeconvertedintopublicutilities;theothershouldbemadeabsolutelysecular，inordertodestroyclericalinfluenceovertheyouthfulmind。Inthisprogramradicalsandliberalsconcurredwithvaryingdegreesofintensity，whilethemoderatesstrovetoholdthebalancebetweenthemandtheiropponents。
Outofthiscomplexsituationcivilcommotionswereboundtoarise。Occasionallythesewererealwars，butasaruleonlyskirmishesorsporadicinsurrectionsoccurred。Theywerecalled\"revolutions，\"notbecausesomegreatprinciplewasactuallyatstakebutbecausethetermhadbeenpopulareversincethestrugglewithSpain。Asadesignationformovementsaimedatsecuringrotationinoffice，andhencecontrolofthetreasury，itwasappropriateenough！Atallevents，whetherseriousorfarcical，thecommotionsofteninvolvedanexpenditureinlifeandmoneyfarbeyondthevalueoftheinterestsaffected。
Further，boththeprevalentdisorderandthecentralizationofauthorityimpelledtheeducatedandwellto—doclassestotakeuptheirresidenceattheseatofgovernment。Notafewoftheuprisingswere，infact，protestsonthepartoftheneglectedfolkintheinteriorofthecountryagainstconcentrationofpopulation，wealth，intellect，andpowerintheSpanishAmericancapitals。
AmongthetownsofthissortwasBuenosAires。Here，in1829，RosasinauguratedacareerofrulershipovertheArgentineConfederation，culminatinginadespotismthatmadehimthemostextraordinaryfigureofhistime。Originallyastockfarmerandskilledinalltheexercisesofthecowboy，hedevelopedanunusualtalentforadministration。Hiskeenintelligence，supplestatecraft，inflexibilityofpurpose，andvigorofaction，unitedtoashrewdunderstandingofhumanfolliesandpassions，gavetohispersonalityadominancethatawedandtohiswordofcommandapowerthathumbled。Overhisfellowchieftainswhoheldtheprovincesinterrorizedsubjection，hewonanascendancythatinsuredcompliancewithhiswill。Theinstinctsofthemultitudeheflatteredbyhisgeneroussimplicity，whileheenlistedthesupportoftheresponsibleclassbymaintainingorderinthecountryside。Thedesire，also，ofBuenosAirestobeparamountovertheotherprovinceshadnosmallshareinstrengtheninghispower。
Relativelyhonestinmoneymatters，andasticklerforprecisionanduniformity，Rosassoughttogovernanationintherough—and—readyfashionofthestockfarm。Acreatureofhisenvironment，nobetterandnoworsethanhisassociates，butonlymorecapablethanthey，andabsolutelyconvincedthatpitilessautocracywasthesolemeansofcreatinganationoutofchaoticfragments，this\"RobespierreofSouthAmerica\"carriedonhisdespoticsway，regardlessofthefuryofopponentsandthemenaceofforeignintervention。
Duringthefirstthreeyearsofhiscontrol，however，exceptfortherigoroussuppressionofunitarymovementsandthemuzzlingofthepress，fewsignsappearedofthe\"blacknightofArgentinehistory\"whichwassoontoclosedownontheland。Realizingthattheauspiciousmomenthadnotyetarrivedforhimtoexercisethelimitlesspowerthathethoughtneedful，hedeclinedanofferofreelectionfromtheprovinciallegislature，inthehopethat，throughapolicyofconciliation，hissuccessormightfallapreytothedesignsoftheUnitaries。Whenthishappened，hesecretlystirreduptheprovincesintoarenewaloftheearlierdisturbances，untiltheevidencebecameoverwhelmingthatRosasalonecouldbringpeaceandprogressoutofturmoilandbackwardness。Reluctantlythelegislatureyieldedhimthepoweritknewhewanted。Thishewouldnotacceptuntila\"popular\"
voteofsome9000to4confirmedthechoice。In1835，accordingly，hebecamedictatorforthefirstoffoursuccessivetermsoffiveyears。
Thenensued，notablyinBuenosAiresitself，astateofaffairsatoncegrotesqueandfrightful。Notcontentwithhuntingdownandinflictingeverypossible，outrageuponthosesuspectedofsympathywiththeUnitaries，Rosasforbadethemtodisplaythelightblueandwhitecolorsoftheirpartydeviceanddirectedthatred，thesignofFederalism，shouldbedisplayedonalloccasions。Pinkhewouldnottolerateasbeingtooattenuatedashadeandaltogethertoosuggestiveofpoliticaltrimming！Abandofhisfollowers，madeupofruffians，andcalledtheMazorca，or\"EarofCorn，\"becauseoftheresemblanceoftheirclosefellowshiptoitsadheringgrains，brokeintoprivatehouses，destroyedeverythinglightbluewithinreach，andmaltreatedtheunfortunateoccupantsatwill。Nomanwassafealsowhodidnotgivehisfacealeonineaspectbywearingamustacheandsidewhiskers——emblems，theoneof\"federalism，\"andtheotherof\"independence。\"Topossessavisagebareofthesehirsuteadornmentsoracountenancetooefflorescentinthatrespectwas，underaregimeoftonsorialpolitics，toinvitepersonaldisaster！NothingapparentlywastoocringingorserviletoshowhowsubmissivethepeopleweretothemasteryofRosas。Privatevengeanceanddefamationoftheinnocentdidtheirsinisterworkunchecked。EvenwhenhisarbitrarytreatmentofforeignershadcompelledFranceforawhiletoinstituteablockadeofBuenosAires，thewilydictatorutilizedtheincidenttoturnpatrioticresentmenttohisownadvantage。
MeanwhilemattersinUruguayhadcometosuchapassthatRosassawanopportunitytoextendhiscontrolinthatdirectionalso。
PlacedbetweenBrazilandtheArgentineConfederationandsooftenaboneofcontention，thelittlecountrywashardlyfreefromtheruleoftheformerstatewhenitcamenearfallingunderthedominationofthelatter。OnlyafewyearsofrelativetranquillityhadelapsedwhentwopartiessprangupinUruguay：
the\"Reds\"（Colorados）andthe\"Whites\"（Blancos）。Ofthese，theonewassupposedtorepresenttheliberalandtheothertheconservativeelement。Infact，theywerethefollowingsofpartisanchieftains，whosestrugglesforthepresidencyduringmanyyearstocomeretardedtheadvancementofacountrytowhichnaturehadbeengenerous。
WhenFructuosoRivera，thePresidentupto1835，thoughtofchoosingsomeonetobeelectedinconstitutionalfashionashissuccessor，heunwiselysingledoutManuelOribe，oneofthefamous\"Thirty—three\"whohadraisedthecryofindependenceadecadebefore。Butinsteadofahenchmanhefoundarival。Bothofthemstraightwayadoptedthecolorsandbidforthesupportofoneofthelocalfactions;andbothappealedtothefactionsoftheArgentineConfederationforaid，RiveratotheUnitariesandOribetotheFederalists。In1843，Oribe，attheheadofanarmyofBlancosandFederalistsandwiththemoralsupportofRosas，laidsiegetoMontevideo。DefendedbyColorados，Unitaries，andnumerousforeigners，includingGiuseppeGaribaldi，thetownheldoutvaliantlyforeightyears——afeatthatearnedforitthetitleofthe\"NewTroy。\"Anxioustostoptheslaughteranddestructionthatwereinjuringtheirnationals，France，GreatBritain，andBrazilofferedtheirmediation;butRosaswouldhavenoneofit。Whattheantagonistsdidhecaredlittle，solongastheyenfeebledthecountryandincreasedhischancesofdominatingit。Atlength，in1845，thetwoEuropeanpowersestablishedablockadeofArgentineports，whichwasnotlifteduntilthedictatorgrudginglyagreedtowithdrawhistroopsfromtheneighboringrepublic。
Morethananyothersinglefactor，thisinterventionofFranceandGreatBritainadministeredablowtoRosasfromwhichhecouldnotrecover。TheoperationsoftheirfleetsandtheresistanceofMontevideohadloweredtheprestigeofthedictatorandhadraisedthehopesoftheUnitariesthatalastdesperateeffortmightshakeoffhishatedcontrol。InMay，1851，JustoJosedeUrquiza，oneofhismosttrustedlieutenants，declaredtheindependenceofhisownprovinceandcalledupontheotherstoriseagainstthetyrant。EnlistingthesupportofBrazil，Uruguay，andParaguay，heassembleda\"greatarmyofliberation，\"
composedofabouttwenty—fivethousandmen，atwhoseheadhemarchedtomeettheredoubtableRosas。OnFebruary3，1852，ataspotnearBuenosAires，themanofmightwho，likehiscontemporaryFranciainParaguay，hadheldtheArgentineConfederationinthralldomforsomanyyears，wentdowntofinaldefeat。EmbarkingonaBritishwarshiphesailedforEngland，theretobecomeaquietcountrygentlemaninalandwheregauchosanddictatorswereunhonored。
InthemeantimeParaguay，sparedfromsuchconvulsionasrackeditsneighborontheeast，draggedonitssecludedexistenceofbackwardnessandstagnation。Indiansandhalf—castesvegetatedinignoranceanddocility，andthehandfulofwhitesquakedinterror，whiletheinexorableFranciatightenedthereinsofcommercialandindustrialrestrictionanderectedfortsalongthefrontierstokeepouttheperniciousforeigner。Athisdeath，in1840，menandwomenweptathisfuneralinfearperchance，asonehistorianremarks，lesthecomebacktolife;andthepriestwhoofficiatedattheservicelikenedthedeparteddictatortoCaesarandAugustus！
Paraguaywasdestined，however，tofallunderadespotfarworsethanFranciawhenin1862FranciscoSolanoLopezbecamePresident。Thenewrulerwasamanofconsiderableintelligenceandeducation。WhileatravelerinEuropehehadseenmuchofitsmilitaryorganizations，andhehadalsogainednoslightacquaintancewiththevicesofitscapitalcities。Thisacquiredknowledgehejoinedtoevilpropensitiesuntilhebecameaveritablemonsterofwickedness。Vain，arrogant，reckless，absolutelydevoidofscruple，swaggeringinvictory，doggedindefeat，ferociouslycruelatalltimes，hemurderedhisbrothersandhisbestfriends;heexecuted，imprisoned，orbanishedanyonewhomhethoughttooinfluential;hetorturedhismotherandsisters;and，liketheFrenchTerrorists，heimpaledhisofficersupontheunpleasantdilemmaofwinningvictoriesorlosingtheirlives。EvenmembersoftheAmericanlegationsufferedtormentathishands，andtheministerhimselfbarelyescapeddeath。
Overhispeople，Lopezwieldedamarvelouspower，compoundedofpersuasiveeloquenceandbruteforce。IftheParaguayanshadobeyedtheirearliermastersblindly，theyweredumbbeforethisnewdespotanddeaftootherthanhiswordofcommand。Tothemhewasthe\"GreatFather，\"whotalkedtothemintheirowntongueofGuarani，whowasthepersonificationofthenation，thegreatestrulerintheworld，theinvinciblechampionwhoinspiredthemwithaloathingandcontemptfortheirenemies。Suchwerethetraitsofamanandsuchthetraitsofapeoplewhowagedforsixyearsawarfareamongthemostextraordinaryinhumanannals。
